YARA-L 2.0 language syntax

This section describes the major elements of the YARA-L syntax. See also Overview of the YARA-L 2.0 language.

Rule structure

For YARA-L 2.0, you must specify variable declarations, definitions, and usages in the following order:

1. meta
2. events
3. match (optional)
4. outcome (optional)
5. condition
6. options (optional)

The following illustrates the generic structure of a rule:

rule <rule Name>
{
    meta:
    // Stores arbitrary key-value pairs of rule details, such as who wrote
    // it, what it detects on, version control, etc.

  events:
    // Conditions to filter events and the relationship between events.

  match:
    // Values to return when matches are found.

  outcome:
    // Additional information extracted from each detection.

  condition:
    // Condition to check events and the variables used to find matches.

  options:
    // Options to turn on or off while executing this rule.
}

Meta section syntax

Meta section is composed of multiple lines, where each line defines a key-value pair. A key part must be an unquoted string, and a value part must be a quoted string:

<key> = "<value>"

The following is an example of a valid meta section line:

meta:
    author = "Google"
    severity = "HIGH"

Events section syntax

In the events section, list the predicates to specify the following:

• Variable declarations
• Event variable filters
• Event variable joins

Variable declarations

For variable declarations, use the following syntax:

• <EVENT_FIELD> = <VAR>
• <VAR> = <EVENT_FIELD>

Both are equivalent, as shown in the following examples:

• $e.source.hostname = $hostname
• $userid = $e.principal.user.userid

This declaration indicates that this variable represents the specified field for the event variable. When the event field is a repeated field, the match variable can represent any value in the array. It is also possible to assign multiple event fields to a single match or placeholder variable. This is a transitive join condition.

For example, the following:

• $e1.source.ip = $ip
• $e2.target.ip = $ip

Are equivalent to:

• $e1.source.ip = $ip
• $e1.source.ip = $e2.target.ip

When a variable is used, the variable must be declared through variable declaration. If a variable is used without any declaration, it is regarded as a compilation error.

Event variable filters

A boolean expression that acts on a single event variable is considered a filter.

Event variable joins

All event variables used in the rule must be joined with every other event variable in either of the following ways:

• Directly through an equality comparison between event fields of the two joined event variables, for example: $e1.field = $e2.field. The expression must not include arithmetic.

• Indirectly through a transitive join involving only an event field (see variable declaration for a definition of "transitive join"). The expression must not include arithmetic.

For example, assuming $e1, $e2, and $e3 are used in the rule, the following events sections are valid.

events:
  $e1.principal.hostname = $e2.src.hostname // $e1 joins with $e2
  $e2.principal.ip = $e3.src.ip // $e2 joins with $e3

events:
  // $e1 joins with $e2 via function to event comparison
  re.capture($e1.src.hostname, ".*") = $e2.target.hostname

events:
  // $e1 joins with $e2 via an `or` expression
  $e1.principal.hostname = $e2.src.hostname
  or $e1.principal.hostname = $e2.target.hostname
  or $e1.principal.hostname = $e2.principal.hostname

events:
  // all of $e1, $e2 and $e3 are transitively joined via the placeholder variable $ip
  $e1.src.ip = $ip
  $e2.target.ip = $ip
  $e3.about.ip = $ip

events:
  // $e1 and $e2 are transitively joined via function to event comparison
  re.capture($e2.principal.application, ".*") = $app
  $e1.principal.hostname = $app

However, here are examples of invalid events sections.

events:
  // Event to arithmetic comparison is an invalid join condition for $e1 and $e2.
  $e1.principal.port = $e2.src.port + 1

events:
  $e1.src.ip = $ip
  $e2.target.ip = $ip
  $e3.about.ip = "192.1.2.0" //$e3 is not joined with $e1 or $e2.

events:
  $e1.src.port = $port

  // Arithmetic to placeholder comparison is an invalid transitive join condition.
  $e2.principal.port + 800 = $port

Match section syntax

In the match section, list the match variables for group events before checking for match conditions. Those fields are returned with each match.

• Specify what each match variable represents in the events section.
• Specify the time duration to use to correlate events after the over keyword. Events outside the time duration are ignored.

• Use the following syntax to specify the time duration: <number><m/h/d>

  Where m/h/d means minutes, hours, and days respectively.

• Minimum time you can specify is 1 minute.

• Maximum time you can specify is 48 hours.

The following is an example of a valid match:

$var1, $var2 over 5m

This statement returns $var1 and $var2 (defined in the events section) when the rule finds a match. The time specified is 5 minutes. Events that are more than 5 minutes apart are not correlated and therefore ignored by the rule.

Here is another example of a valid match section:

$user over 1h

This statement returns $user when the rule finds a match. The time window specified is 1 hour. Events that are more than an hour apart are not correlated. The rule does not consider them to be a detection.

Here is another example of a valid match section:

$source_ip, $target_ip, $hostname over 2m

This statement returns $source_ip, $target_ip, and $hostname when the rule finds a match. The time window specified is 2 minutes. Events that are more than 2 minutes apart are not correlated. The rule does not consider them to be a detection.

The following examples illustrate invalid match sections:

• var1, var2 over 5m // invalid variable name
• $user 1h // missing keyword

Zero value handling in the match section

Rules Engine implicitly filters out the zero values for all placeholders that are used in the match section ("" for string, 0 for numbers, false for booleans, the value in position 0 for enumerated types). The following example illustrates rules that filter out the zero values.

rule ZeroValuePlaceholderExample {
  meta:
  events:
    // Because $host is used in the match section, the rule behaves
    // as if the following predicate was added to the events section:
    // $host != ""
    $host = $e.principal.hostname

    // Because $otherPlaceholder was not used in the match section,
    // there is no implicit filtering of zero values for $otherPlaceholder.
    $otherPlaceholder = $e.principal.ip

  match:
    $host over 5m

  condition:
    $e
}

However, if a placeholder is assigned to a function, rules don't implicitly filter out the zero values of placeholders that are used in the match section. The following example illustrates rules that filter out the zero values:

rule ZeroValueFunctionPlaceholder {
  meta:
  events:
    // Even though $ph is used in the match section, there is no
    // implicit filtering of zero values for $ph, because $ph is assigned to a function.
    $ph = re.capture($e.principal.hostname, "some-regex")

  match:
    $ph over 5m

  condition:
    $e
}

To disable the implicit filtering of zero values, you can use the allow_zero_values option in the options section.

Hop window

By default, YARA-L 2.0 rules with a match section are evaluated using hop windows. The time range of the rule's execution is divided into a set of overlapping hop windows, each with the duration specified in the match section. Events are then correlated within each hop window.

For example, for a rule that is run over the time range [1:00, 2:00], with a match section over 30m, a possible set of overlapping hop windows that could be generated is [1:00, 1:30], [1:03, 1:33] and [1:06, 1:36]. These windows are used to correlate multiple events.

Sliding window

Using hop windows is not an effective way to search for events that happen in a specific order (for example, e1 happens up to 2 minutes after e2). An occurrence of event e1 and an occurrence of event e2 are correlated only if they fall into the same hop window generated.

A more effective way to search for such event sequences is to use sliding windows. Sliding windows with the duration specified in the match section are generated when beginning or ending with a specified pivot event variable. Events are then correlated within each sliding window. This makes it possible to search for events that happen in a specific order (for example, e1 happens within 2 minutes of e2). An occurrence of event e1 and an occurrence of event e2 are correlated if event e1 occurs within the sliding window duration after event e2.

Specify sliding windows in the match section of a rule as follows:

<match-var-1>, <match-var-2>, ... over <duration> before|after <pivot-event-var>

The pivot event variable is the event variable that sliding windows are based on. If you use the before keyword, sliding windows are generated, ending with each occurrence of the pivot event. If the after keyword is used, sliding windows are generated beginning with each occurrence of the pivot event.

The following are examples of valid sliding window usages:

• $var1, $var2 over 5m after $e1
• $user over 1h before $e2

See a sliding window rule example.

Google recommends not using sliding windows for single-event rules, because sliding windows are designed to detect multiple events. If one of your rules falls in this category, Google recommends one of the following workarounds:

• Convert the rule to use multiple event variables, and update the condition section if the rule requires more than one occurrence of the event.
  • Optionally, consider adding timestamp filters instead of using a sliding window. For example, $permission_change.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds < $file_creation.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds
• Remove the sliding window.

Outcome section syntax

In the outcome section, you can define up to 20 outcome variables, with arbitrary names. These outcomes will be stored in the detections generated by the rule. Each detection may have different values for the outcomes.

The outcome name, $risk_score, is special. You can optionally define an outcome with this name, and if you do, it must be an integer or float type. If populated, the risk_score will be shown in the Enterprise Insights view for alerts that come from rule detections.

If you don't include a $risk_score variable in the outcome section of a rule, one of the following default values is set:

• If the rule is configured to generate an alert, then $risk_score is set to 40.
• If the rule is not configured to generate an alert, then $risk_score is set to 15.

The value of $risk_score is stored in the security_result.risk_score UDM field.

Outcome variable data types

Each outcome variable can have a different data type, which is determined by the expression used to compute it. We support the following outcome data types:

• integer
• floats
• string
• lists of integers
• lists of floats
• lists of strings

Conditional logic

You can use conditional logic to compute the value of an outcome. Conditionals are specified using the following syntax pattern:

if(BOOL_CLAUSE, THEN_CLAUSE)
if(BOOL_CLAUSE, THEN_CLAUSE, ELSE_CLAUSE)

You can read a conditional expression as "if BOOL_CLAUSE is true, then return THEN_CLAUSE, else return ELSE_CLAUSE".

BOOL_CLAUSE must evaluate to a boolean value. A BOOL_CLAUSE expression takes a similar form as expressions in the events section. For example, it can contain:

• UDM field names with comparison operator, for example:

  if($context.graph.entity.user.title = "Vendor", 100, 0)

• placeholder variable that was defined in the events section, for example:

  if($severity = "HIGH", 100, 0)

• another outcome variable defined in the outcome section, for example:

  if($risk_score > 20, "HIGH", "LOW")

• functions that return a boolean, for example:

  if(re.regex($e.network.email.from, `.*altostrat.com`), 100, 0)

• look up in a reference list, for example:

  if($u.principal.hostname in %my_reference_list_name, 100, 0)

• aggregation comparison, for example:

  if(count($login.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds) > 5, 100, 0)

The THEN_CLAUSE and ELSE_CLAUSE must be the same data type. We support integers, floats, and strings.

You can omit the ELSE_CLAUSE if the data type is integer or a float. If omitted, the ELSE_CLAUSE evaluates to 0. For example:

`if($e.field = "a", 5)` is equivalent to `if($e.field = "a", 5, 0)`

You must provide the ELSE_CLAUSE if the data type is string or if the THEN_CLAUSE is a placeholder variable or outcome variable.

Mathematical operations

You can use mathematical operations to compute integer or float data type in the outcomeand events sections of a rule. Google Security Operations supports addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulus as top level operators in a computation.

The following snippet is an example computation in the outcome section:

outcome:
  $risk_score = max(100 + if($severity = "HIGH", 10, 5) - if($severity = "LOW", 20, 0))

Mathematical operations are allowed on the following types of operands as long as each operand and the entire arithmetic expression is properly aggregated (See Aggregations):

• Numeric event fields
• Numeric placeholder variables defined in the events section
• Numeric outcome variables defined in the outcome section
• Functions returning ints or floats
• Aggregations returning ints or floats

Modulus is not allowed on floats.

Placeholder variables in outcomes

When computing outcome variables, you can use placeholder variables which were defined in the events section of your rule. In this example, assume that $email_sent_bytes was defined in the events section of the rule:

Single-event example:

// No match section, so this is a single-event rule.

outcome:
  // Use placeholder directly as an outcome value.
  $my_outcome = $email_sent_bytes

  // Use placeholder in a conditional.
  $other_outcome = if($file_size > 1024, "SEVERE", "MODERATE")

condition:
  $e

Multi-event example:

match:
  // This is a multi event rule with a match section.
  $hostname over 5m

outcome:
  // Use placeholder directly in an aggregation function.
  $max_email_size = max($email_sent_bytes)

  // Use placeholder in a mathematical computation.
  $total_bytes_exfiltrated = sum(
    1024
    + $email_sent_bytes
    + $file_event.principal.file.size
  )

condition:
  $email_event and $file_event

Outcome variables in outcome assignment expressions

Outcome variables can be used to derive other outcome variables, similar to placeholder variables defined in the events section. You can refer to an outcome variable in the assignment of another outcome variable with a $ token followed by the variable name. Outcome variables must be defined before they can be referenced in the rule text. When used in an assignment expression, outcome variables must not be aggregated (See Aggregations).

In the following example, the outcome variable $risk_score derives its value from the outcome variable $event_count:

Multi-event example:

match:
  // This is a multi event rule with a match section.
  $hostname over 5m

outcome:
  // Aggregates all timestamp on login events in the 5 minute match window.
  $event_count = count($login.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds)
  
  // $event_count cannot be aggregated again.
  $risk_score = if($event_count > 5, "SEVERE", "MODERATE")

  // This is the equivalent of the 2 outcomes above combined.
  $risk_score2 = if(count($login.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds) > 5, "SEVERE", "MODERATE")

condition:
  $e

Outcome variables can be used in any type of expression on the right-hand-side of an outcome assignment, except in the following expressions:

• Aggregations
• Arrays.length() function calls
• With any or all modifiers

Aggregations

Repeated event fields are non-scalar values. That is, a single variable points to multiple values. For example, the event field variable $e.target.ip is a repeated field and can have zero, one, or many ip values. It is a non-scalar value. Whereas the event field variable $e.principal.hostname is not a repeated field and only has 1 value (i.e. a scalar value).

Similarly, both non-repeated event fields and repeated event fields used in the outcome section of a rule with a match window are non-scalar values. For example, the following rule groups events using a match section and refers to a non-repeated event field in the outcome section:

rule OutcomeAndMatchWindow{
  ...
  match:
    $userid over 5m
  outcome:
    $hostnames = array($e.principal.hostname)
  ...
}

Any 5-minute window the rule executes over might contain zero, one, or many events. The outcome section operates on all events in a match window. Any event field variable referred to within the outcome section can point to zero, one, or many values of the field on each event in the match window. In the preceding rule, if a 5-minute window contains 5 $e events, $e.principal.hostname in the outcome section points to 5 different hostnames. The event field variable $e.principal.hostname is thus a non-scalar value in the outcome section of this rule.

Because outcome variables must always yield a single scalar value, any non-scalar value which an outcome assignment depends on must be aggregated to yield a single scalar value. In an outcome section, the following are non-scalar values and must be aggregated:

• Event fields (repeated or non-repeated) when the rule uses a match section
• Event placeholders (repeated or non-repeated) when the rule uses a match section
• Repeated event fields when the rule does not use a match section
• Repeated event placeholders when the rule does not use a match section

Scalar event fields, scalar event placeholders, and constants may be wrapped in an aggregation in a rule which does not use a match section. However, most aggregations will yield the wrapped value and are therefore unnecessary. The exception being array() aggregation which can be used to convert a scalar value into an array.

Outcome variables are treated like aggregations: they must not be re-aggregated when referred to in another outcome assignment.

You can use the following aggregation functions:

• max(): outputs the maximum over all possible values. Only works with integer and float.
• min(): outputs the minimum over all possible values. Only works with integer and float.
• sum(): outputs the sum over all possible values. Only works with integer and float.
• count_distinct(): collects all possible values, then outputs the distinct count of possible values.
• count(): behaves like count_distinct(), but returns a non-distinct count of possible values.
• array_distinct(): collects all possible distinct values, then outputs a list of these values. It will truncate the list of distinct values to 25 random elements. The deduplication to get a distinct list is applied first, then the truncation is applied.
• array(): behaves like array_distinct(), but returns a non-distinct list of values. It also truncates the list of values to 25 random elements.
• period_start_for_max(): start of the time period where the maximum of the listed value occurred.
• period_start_for_min(): start of the time period where the minimum of the listed value occurred.

The aggregate function is important when a rule includes a condition section that specifies multiple events must exist, because the aggregate function will operate on all the events that generated the detection.

For example, if your outcome and condition sections contain:

outcome:
  $asset_id_count = count($event.principal.asset_id)
  $asset_id_distinct_count = count_distinct($event.principal.asset_id)

  $asset_id_list = array($event.principal.asset_id)
  $asset_id_distinct_list = array_distinct($event.principal.asset_id)

condition:
  #event > 1

Since the condition section requires there to be more than one event for each detection, the aggregate functions will operate on multiple events. Suppose the following events generated one detection:

event:
  // UDM event 1
  asset_id="asset-a"

event:
  // UDM event 2
  asset_id="asset-b"

event:
  // UDM event 3
  asset_id="asset-b"

Then the values of your outcomes will be:

• $asset_id_count = 3
• $asset_id_distinct_count = 2
• $asset_id_list = ["asset-a", "asset-b", "asset-b"]
• $asset_id_distinct_list = ["asset-a", "asset-b"]

Things to know when using the outcome section:

Other notes and restrictions:

• The outcome section cannot reference a new placeholder variable which wasn't already defined in the events section or in the outcome section.
• The outcome section cannot use event variables that have not been defined in the events section.
• The outcome section can use an event field that was not used in the events section, given that the event variable that the event field belongs to was already defined in the events section.
• The outcome section can only correlate event variables that have already been correlated in the events section. Correlations happen when two event fields from different event variables are equated.

You can find an example using the outcome section in Overview of the YARA-L 2.0. See Create context-aware analytics for details on detection deduping with the outcome section.

Condition section syntax

• specify a match condition over events and placeholders defined in the events section. See the following section, Event and placeholder conditionals, for more details.
• (optional) use the and keyword to specify a match condition using outcome variables defined in the outcome section. See the following section, Outcome conditionals, for more details.

Count character

The # character is a special character in the condition section. If it is used before any event or placeholder variable name, it represents the number of distinct events or values that satisfy all of the events section conditions.

For example, #c > 1 means the variable c must occur more than 1 time.

Value character

The $ character is a special character in the condition section. If it is used before any outcome variable name, it represents the value of that outcome.

If it is used before any event or placeholder variable name (for example, $event), it represents #event > 0.

Event and placeholder conditionals

List condition predicates for events and placeholder variables here, joined with the keyword and or or. The keyword and can be used between any conditions, but the keyword or can only be used when the rule only has a single event variable.

A valid example of using or between two placeholders on the same event:

rule ValidConditionOr {
  meta:
  events:
      $e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_CONNECTION"

      // Note that all placeholders use the same event variable.
      $ph = $e.principal.user.userid  // Define a placeholder variable to put in match section.
      $ph2 = $e.principal.ip  // Define a second placeholder variable to put in condition section.
      $ph3 = $e.principal.hostname  // Define a third placeholder variable to put in condition section.

  match:
    $ph over 5m

  condition:
    $ph2 or $ph3
}

An invalid example of using or between two conditions on different events:

rule InvalidConditionOr {
  meta:
  events:
      $e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_CONNECTION"
      $e2.graph.metadata.entity_type = "FILE"
      $e2.graph.entity.hostname  = $e.principal.hostname

      $ph = $e.principal.user.userid  // Define a placeholder variable to put in match section.

  match:
    $ph over 5m

  condition:
    $e or $e2 // This line will cause an error because there is an or between events.
}

Bounded and Unbounded conditions

The following conditions are bounded conditions. They force the associated event variable to exist, meaning that at least one occurrence of the event must appear in any detection.

• $var // equivalent to #var > 0
• #var > n // where n >= 0
• #var >= m // where m > 0

The following conditions are unbounded conditions. They allow the associated event variable to not exist, meaning that it is possible that no occurrence of the event appears in a detection and any reference to fields on the event variable will yield a zero value. Unbounded conditions can be used to detect the absence of an event over a period of time. For example, a threat event without a mitigation event within a 10 minute window. Rules using unbounded conditions are called non-existence rules.

• !$var // equivalent to #var = 0
• #var >= 0
• #var < n // where n > 0
• #var <= m // where m >= 0

Requirements for non-existence

For a rule with non-existence to compile, it must satisfy the following requirements:

1. At least one UDM event must have a bounded condition (that is, at least one UDM event must exist).
2. If a placeholder has an unbounded condition, it must be associated with at least one bounded UDM event.
3. If an entity has an unbounded condition, it must be associated with at least one bounded UDM event.

Consider the following rule with the condition section omitted:

rule NonexistenceExample {
  meta:
  events:
      $u1.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_CONNECTION" // $u1 is a UDM event.
      $u2.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_CONNECTION" // $u2 is a UDM event.
      $e1.graph.metadata.entity_type = "FILE"        // $e1 is an Entity.
      $e2.graph.metadata.entity_type = "FILE"        // $e2 is an Entity.

      $user = $u1.principal.user.userid // Match variable is required for Multi-Event Rule.

      // Placeholder Associations:
      //   u1        u2 
      //   |  \    /
      // port   ip
      //   |       \
      //   e1        e2
      $u1.target.port = $port
      $e1.graph.entity.port = $port
      $u1.principal.ip = $ip
      $u2.target.ip = $ip
      $e2.graph.entity.ip = $ip

      // UDM-Entity Associations:
      // u1 - u2
      // |  \  |
      // e1   e2
      $u1.metadata.event_type = $u2.metadata.event_type
      $e1.graph.entity.hostname = $u1.principal.hostname
      $e2.graph.entity.hostname = $u1.target.hostname
      $e2.graph.entity.hostname = $u2.principal.hostname

  match:
    $user over 5m

  condition:
      <condition_section>
}

The following are valid examples for the <condition_section>:

• $u1 and !$u2 and $e1 and $e2
  • All UDM events and entities are present in the condition section.
  • At least one UDM event is bounded.
• $u1 and !$u2 and $e1 and !$e2
  • $e2is unbounded, which is allowed because it is associated with $u1, which is bounded. If $e2 was not associated with $u1, this would be invalid.
• #port > 50 and #ip = 0
  • No UDM events and entities are present in the condition section; however, the placeholders that are present cover all the UDM events and entities.
  • $ip is assigned to both $u1 and $u2 and #ip = 0 is an unbounded condition. However, bounded conditions are stronger than unbounded conditions. Since $port is assigned to $u1 and #port > 50 is a bounded condition, $u1 is still bounded.

The following are invalid examples for the <condition_section>:

• $u1 and $e1
  • Every UDM event and entity appearing in the Events Section must appear in the Condition Section (or have a placeholder assigned to it that appears in the Condition Section).
• $u1, $u2, $e1, $u2, #port > 50
  • Commas are not allowed as condition separators.
• !$u1 and !$u2 and $e1 and $e2
  • Violates the first requirement that at least one UDM event is bounded.
• ($u1 or #port < 50) and $u2 and $e1 and $e2
  • or keyword is not supported with unbounded conditions.
• ($u1 or $u2) and $e1 and $e2
  • or keyword is not supported between different event variables.
• not $u1 and $u2 and $e1 and $e2
  • not keyword is not allowed for event and placeholder conditions.
• #port < 50 and #ip = 0
  • The placeholders that are present cover all the UDM events and entities; however, all of the conditions are unbounded. This means none of the UDM events are bounded, causing the rule to fail to compile.

Outcome conditionals

List condition predicates for outcome variables here, joined with the keyword and or or, or preceded by the keyword not.

Specify outcome conditionals differently depending on the type of the outcome variable:

• integer: compare against an integer literal with operators =, >, >=, <, <=, !=, for example:

  $risk_score > 10

• float: compare against a float literal with operators =, >, >=, <, <=, !=, for example:

  $risk_score <= 5.5

• string: compare against a string literal with either = or !=, for example:

  $severity = "HIGH"

• list of integers or arrays: specify condition using the arrays.contains function, for example:

  arrays.contains($event_ids, "id_1234")

Rule classification

Specifying an outcome conditional in a rule that has a match section means that the rule will be classified as a multi-event rule for rule quota. See single event rule and multiple event rule for more information about single and multiple event classifications.

Options section syntax

In the options section, you can specify the options for the rule. Here is an example of how to specify the options section:

rule RuleOptionsExample {
  // Other rule sections

  options:
    allow_zero_values = true
}

You can specify options using the syntax key = value, where key must be a predefined option name and value must be a valid value for the option, as specified for the following options:

allow_zero_values

The valid values for this option are true and false, which determine if this option is enabled or not. The default value is false. This option is disabled if it is not specified in the rule.

To enable this setting, add the following to the options section of your rule: allow_zero_values = true. Doing so will prevent the rule from implicitly filtering out the zero values of placeholders that are used in the match section, as described in zero value handling in the match section.

Boolean Expressions

Boolean expressions are expressions with a boolean type.

Comparisons

For a binary expression to use as condition, use the following syntax:

• <EXPR> <OP> <EXPR>

Expression can be either event field, variable, literal, or function expression.

For example:

• $e.source.hostname = "host1234"
• $e.source.port < 1024
• 1024 < $e.source.port
• $e1.source.hostname != $e2.target.hostname
• $e1.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds > $e2.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds
• $port >= 25
• $host = $e2.target.hostname
• "google-test" = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, "-test")
• "email@google.org" = re.replace($e.network.email.from, "com", "org")

If both sides are literals, it is regarded as a compilation error.

Functions

Some function expressions return boolean value, which can be used as an individual predicate in the events section. Such functions are:

• re.regex()
• net.ip_in_range_cidr()

For example:

• re.regex($e.principal.hostname, `.*\.google\.com`)
• net.ip_in_range_cidr($e.principal.ip, "192.0.2.0/24")

Reference list expressions

You can use reference lists in the events section. See the section on Reference Lists for more details.

Logical expressions

You can use the logical and and logical or operators in the events section as shown in the following examples:

• $e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_DNS" or $e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_DHCP"
• ($e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_DNS" and $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.12") or ($e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_DHCP" and $e.principal.mac = "AB:CD:01:10:EF:22")
• not $e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_DNS"

By default, the precedence order from highest to lowest is not, and, or.

For example, "a or b and c" is evaluated as "a or (b and c)" when the operators or and and are defined explicitly in the expression.

In the events section, predicates are joined using the and operator if an operator is not explicitly defined.

The order of evaluation may be different if the and operator is implied in the expression.

For example, consider the following comparison expressions where or is defined explicitly. The and operator is implied.

$e1.field = "bat"
or $e1.field = "baz"
$e2.field = "bar"

This example is interpreted as follows:

($e1.field = "bat" or $e1.field = "baz")
and ($e2.field = "bar")

Because or is defined explicitly, the predicates surrounding or are grouped and evaluated first. The last predicate, $e2.field = "bar" is joined implicitly using and. The result is that order of evaluation changes.

Enumerated types

You can use the operators with enumerated types. It can be applied to rules to simplify and optimize (use operator instead of reference lists) the performance.

In the following example, 'USER_UNCATEGORIZED' and 'USER_RESOURCE_DELETION' correspond to 15000 and 15014, so the rule will look for all the listed events:

$e.metadata.event_type >= "USER_CATEGORIZED" and $e.metadata.event_type <= "USER_RESOURCE_DELETION"

List of events:

• USER_RESOURCE_DELETION
• USER_RESOURCE_UPDATE_CONTENT
• USER_RESOURCE_UPDATE_PERMISSIONS
• USER_STATS
• USER_UNCATEGORIZED

Nocase Modifier

When you have a comparison expression between string values or a regular expression, you can append nocase at the end of the expression to ignore capitalization.

• $e.principal.hostname != "http-server" nocase
• $e1.principal.hostname = $e2.target.hostname nocase
• $e.principal.hostname = /dns-server-[0-9]+/ nocase
• re.regex($e.target.hostname, `client-[0-9]+`) nocase

This cannot be used when a type of field is an enumerated value. The following examples are invalid and will generate compilation errors:

• $e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_DNS" nocase
• $e.network.ip_protocol = "TCP" nocase

Repeated fields

In the Unified Data Model (UDM), some fields are labeled as repeated, which indicates that they are lists of values or other types of messages.

Repeated fields and boolean expressions

There are 2 kinds of boolean expressions that act on repeated fields:

1. Modified
2. Unmodified

Consider the following event:

event_original {
  principal {
    // ip is a repeated field
    ip: [ "192.0.2.1", "192.0.2.2", "192.0.2.3" ]

    hostname: "host"
  }
}

Modified expressions

The following sections describe the purpose and how to use the any and all modifiers in expressions.

any

If any element of the repeated field satisfies the condition, the event as a whole satisfies the condition.

• event_original satisfies any $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.1".
• event_original fails any $e.repeated_field.field_a = "9.9.9.9.

all

If all elements of the repeated field satisfy the condition, the event as a whole satisfies the condition.

• event_original satisfies net.ip_in_range_cidr(all $e.principal.ip, "192.0.2.0/8").
• event_original fails all $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.2".

When writing a condition with any or all, be aware that negating the condition with not might not have the same meaning as using the negated operator.

For example:

• not all $e.principal.ip = "192.168.12.16" checks if not all IP addresses match 192.168.12.16, meaning the rule is checking whether at least one IP address does not match 192.168.12.16.
• all $e.principal.ip != "192.168.12.16" checks if all IP addresses don't match 192.168.12.16, meaning the rule is checking that no IP addresses match to 192.168.12.16.

Constraints:

• any and all operators are only compatible with repeated fields (not scalar fields).
• any and all cannot be used to join two repeated fields. For example, any $e1.principal.ip = $e2.principal.ip is not valid.
• any and all operators are not supported with the reference list expression.

Unmodified expressions

With unmodified expressions, each element in the repeated field is treated individually. If an event's repeated field contains n elements, then the rule is applied on n copies of the event, where each copy has one of the elements of the repeated field. These copies are transient and not stored.

The rule is applied on the following copies:

If any event copy satisfies all unmodified conditions on the repeated field, the event as a whole satisfies all the conditions. That means that if you have multiple conditions on a repeated field, then the event copy must satisfy all of them. The following rule examples use the preceding example dataset to demonstrate this behavior.

The following rule returns one match when run against the event_original example dataset, because event_copy_1 satisfies all of the events predicates:

rule repeated_field_1 {
  meta:
  events:
    net.ip_in_range_cidr($e.principal.ip, "192.0.2.0/8") // Checks if IP address matches 192.x.x.x
    $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.1"
  condition:
    $e
}

The following rule doesn't return a match when run against the event_original example dataset, because there is no event copy in $e.principal.ip that satisfies all the event predicates.

rule repeated_field_2 {
  meta:
  events:
    $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.1"
    $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.2"
  condition:
    $e
}

Modified expressions on repeated fields are compatible with unmodified expressions on repeated fields because the element list is the same for each event copy. Consider the following rule:

rule repeated_field_3 {
  meta:
  events:
    any $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.1" 
    $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.3"
  condition:
    $e
}

The rule is applied on the following copies:

In this case, all copies satisfy any $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.1" but only event_copy_3 satisfies $e.principal.ip = "192.0.2.3". As a result, the event as a whole would match.

Another way to think about these expression types are:

• Expressions on repeated fields which use any or all operate on the list in event_original.
• Expressions on repeated fields which don't use any or all operate on individual event_copy_n events.

Repeated fields and placeholders

Repeated fields work with placeholder assignments. Similar to unmodified expressions on repeated fields, a copy of the event is made for each element. Using the same example of event_copy, the placeholder takes the value of the event_copy_n's repeated field value, for each of the event copies where n is the event copy number. If the placeholder is used in the match section, this can result in multiple matches.

The following example generates one match. The $ip placeholder is equal to 192.0.2.1 for event_copy_1, which satisfies the predicates in the rule. The match's event samples contain a single element, event_original.

// Generates 1 match.
rule repeated_field_placeholder1 {
  meta:
  events:
    $ip = $e.principal.ip
    $ip = "192.0.2.1"
    $host = $e.principal.hostname

  match:
    $host over 5m

  condition:
    $e
}

The following example generates three matches. The $ip placeholder is equal to different values, for each of the different event_copy_n copies. The grouping is done on $ip since it is in the match section. Therefore, you get three matches where each match has a different value for the $ip match variable. Each match has the same event sample: a single element, event_original.

// Generates 3 matches.
rule repeated_field_placeholder2 {
  meta:
  events:
    $ip = $e.principal.ip
    net.ip_in_range_cidr($ip, "192.0.2.0/8") // Checks if IP matches 192.x.x.x

  match:
    $ip over 5m

  condition:
    $e
}

Outcomes using placeholders assigned to repeated fields

Placeholders are assigned to each element of each repeated field - not the entire list. Thus, when they're used in the outcome section, the outcome is calculated using only the elements that satisfied earlier sections.

Consider the following rule:

rule outcome_repeated_field_placeholder {
  meta:
  events:
    $ip = $e.principal.ip
    $ip = "192.0.2.1" or $ip = "192.0.2.2"
    $host = $e.principal.hostname

  match:
    $host over 5m

  outcome:
    $o = array_distinct($ip)

  condition:
    $e
}

There are 4 stages of execution for this rule. The first stage is event copying:

The events section will then filter out rows that don't match the filters:

event_copy_3 is filtered out because "192.0.2.3" does not satisfy $ip = "192.0.2.1" or $ip = "192.0.2.2".

The match section will then group by match variables and the outcome section will perform aggregation on each group:

$o = array_distinct($ip) is calculated using $ip from the previous stage and not the event copying stage.

Finally, the condition section will filter each group. Since this rule just checks for the existence of $e, the row from earlier will produce a single detection.

$o does not contain all the elements from $e.principal.ip because not all the elements satisfied all the conditions in the events section. However, all the elements of e.principal.ip will appear in the event sample because the event sample uses event_original.

Array indexing

You can perform array indexing on repeated fields. To access the n-th repeated field element, use the standard list syntax (elements are 0-indexed). An out-of-bounds element returns the default value.

• $e.principal.ip[0] = "192.168.12.16"
• $e.principal.ip[999] = "" If there are fewer than 1000 elements, this evaluates to true.

Constraints:

• An index must be a non-negative integer literal. For example, $e.principal.ip[-1] is not valid.
• Values that have an int type (for example, a placeholder set to int) don't count.
• Array indexing cannot be combined with any or all. For example, any $e.intermediary.ip[0] is not valid.
• Array indexing cannot be combined with map syntax. For example, $e.additional.fields[0]["key"] is not valid.
• If the field path contains multiple repeated fields, all repeated fields must use array indexing. For example, $e.intermediary.ip[0] is not valid because intermediary and ip are both repeated fields, but there is only an index for ip.

Repeated messages

When a message field is repeated, an unintended effect is to reduce the likelihood of a match. This is illustrated in the following examples.

Consider the following event:

event_repeated_message {
  // about is a repeated message field.
  about {
    // ip is a repeated string field.
    ip: [ "192.0.2.1", "192.0.2.2", "192.0.2.3" ]

    hostname: "alice"
  }
  about {
    hostname: "bob"
  }
}

As stated for unmodified expressions on repeated fields, a temporary copy of the event is made for each element of the repeated field. Consider the following rule:

rule repeated_message_1 {
  meta:
  events:
    $e.about.ip = "192.0.2.1" 
    $e.about.hostname = "bob"
  condition:
    $e
}

The rule is applied on the following copies:

The event does not match on the rule because there exists no event copy that satisfies all of the expressions.

Repeated messages and array indexing

Another unexpected behavior can occur when using array indexing with unmodified expressions on repeated message fields. Consider the following example rule which uses array indexing:

rule repeated_message_2 {
  meta:
  events:
    $e.about.ip = "192.0.2.1" 
    $e.about[1].hostname = "bob"
  condition:
    $e
}

The rule is applied to the following copies:

Since event_copy_1 satisfies all of the expressions in repeated_message_2, the event matches on the rule.

This can lead to unexpected behavior because rule repeated_message_1 lacked array indexing and produced no matches while rule repeated_message_2 used array indexing and produced a match.

Comments

Designate comments with two slash characters (// comment) or multi-line comments set off using slash asterisk characters (/* comment */), as you would in C.

Literals

Nonnegative integers and floats, string, boolean, and regular expression literals are supported.

String and regular expression literals

You can use either of the following quotation characters to enclose strings in YARA-L 2.0. However, quoted text is interpreted differently depending on which one you use.

1. Double quotes (") — Use for normal strings. Must include escape characters.
   For example: "hello\tworld" —\t is interpreted as a tab

2. Back quotes (`) — Use to interpret all characters literally.
   For example: `hello\tworld` —\t is not interpreted as a tab

For regular expressions, you have two options.

If you want to use regular expressions directly without the re.regex() function, use /regex/ for the regular expression literals.

You can also use string literals as regular expression literals when you use the re.regex() function. Note that for double quote string literals, you must escape backslash characters with backslash characters, which can look awkward.

For example, the following regular expressions are equivalent:

• re.regex($e.network.email.from, `.*altostrat\.com`)
• re.regex($e.network.email.from, ".*altostrat\\.com")
• $e.network.email.from = /.*altostrat\.com/

Google recommends using back quote characters for strings in regular expressions for ease of readability.

Operators

You can use the following operators in YARA-L:

Variables

In YARA-L 2.0, all variables are represented as $<variable name>.

You can define the following types of variables:

• Event variables — Represent groups of events in normalized form (UDM) or entity events. Specify conditions for event variables in the events section. You identify event variables using a name, event source, and event fields. Allowed sources are udm (for normalized events) and graph (for entity events). If the source is omitted, udm is set as the default source. Event fields are represented as a chain of .<field name> (for example, $e.field1.field2). Event field chains always start from the top-level source (UDM or Entity).

• Match variables — Declare in the match section. Match variables become grouping fields for the query, as one row is returned for each unique set of match variables (and for each time window). When the rule finds a match, the match variable values are returned. Specify what each match variable represents in the events section.

• Placeholder variables — Declare and define in the events section. Placeholder variables are similar to match variables. However, you can use placeholder variables in the condition section to specify match conditions.

Use match variables and placeholder variables to declare relationships between event fields through transitive join conditions (see Events Section Syntax for more detail).

Keywords

Keywords in YARA-L 2.0 are case-insensitive. For example, and or AND are equivalent. Variable names must not conflict with keywords. For example, $AND or $outcome is invalid.

The following are keywords for detection engine rules: rule, meta, match, over, events, condition, outcome, options, and, or, not, nocase, in, regex, cidr, before, after, all, any, if, max, min, sum, array, array_distinct, count, count_distinct, is, and null.

Maps

YARA-L supports map access for Structs and Labels.

Structs and Labels

Some UDM fields use either the Struct or Label data type.

To search for a specific key-value pair in both Struct and Label, use the standard map syntax:

// A Struct field.
$e.udm.additional.fields["pod_name"] = "kube-scheduler"
// A Label field.
$e.metadata.ingestion_labels["MetadataKeyDeletion"] = "startup-script"

The map access always returns a string.

Supported cases

Events and Outcome Section

// Using a Struct field in the events section
events:
  $e.udm.additional.fields["pod_name"] = "kube-scheduler"

// Using a Label field in the outcome section
outcome:
  $value = array_distinct($e.metadata.ingestion_labels["MetadataKeyDeletion"])

Assigning a map value to a Placeholder

$placeholder = $u1.metadata.ingestion_labels["MetadataKeyDeletion"]

Using a map field in a join condition

// using a Struct field in a join condition between two udm events $u1 and $u2
$u1.metadata.event_type = $u2.udm.additional.fields["pod_name"]

Unsupported cases

Maps are not supported in the following cases.

Combining any or all keywords with a map

For example, the following is not supported:

all $e.udm.additional.fields["pod_name"] = "kube-scheduler"

Other types of values

The map syntax can only return a string value. In the case of Struct data types, the map syntax can only access keys whose values are strings. Accessing keys whose values are other primitive types like integers, is not possible.

Duplicate value handling

Map accesses always returns a single value. In the uncommon edge case that the map access could refer to multiple values, the map access will deterministically return the first value.

This can happen in either of the following cases:

• A label has a duplicate key.

  The label structure represents a map, but does not enforce key uniqueness. By convention, a map should have unique keys, so Google Security Operations does not recommend populating a label with duplicate keys.

  The rule text $e.metadata.ingestion_labels["dupe-key"] would return the first possible value, val1, if run over the following data example:

  // Disrecommended usage of label with a duplicate key:
  event {
    metadata{
      ingestion_labels{
        key: "dupe-key"
        value: "val1" // This is the first possible value for "dupe-key"
      }
      ingestion_labels{
        key: "dupe-key"
        value: "val2"
      }
    }
  }
  

• A label has an ancestor repeated field.

  A repeated field might contain a label as a child field. Two different entries in the top-level repeated field might contain labels that have the same key. The rule text $e.security_result.rule_labels["key"] would return the first possible value, val3, if run over the following data example:

  event {
    // security_result is a repeated field.
    security_result {
      threat_name: "threat1"
      rule_labels {
        key: "key"
        value: "val3" // This is the first possible value for "key"
      }
    }
    security_result {
      threat_name: "threat2"
      rule_labels {
        key: "key"
        value: "val4"
      }
    }
  }
  

Functions

This section describes the YARA-L 2.0 functions that you can use in detection engine rules and search.

These functions can be used in the following parts of a YARA-L rule:

• events section.
• BOOL_CLAUSE of a conditional in the outcome section.

arrays.concat

arrays.concat(string_array, string_array)

Description

Returns a new string array by copying elements from original string arrays.

Param data types

ARRAY_STRINGS, ARRAY_STRINGS

Return type

ARRAY_STRINGS

Code samples

Example 1

The following example concatenates two different string arrays.

arrays.concat(["test1", "test2"], ["test3"]) = ["test1", "test2", "test3"]

Example 2

The following example concatenates arrays with empty string.

arrays.concat([""], [""]) = ["", ""]

Example 3

The following example concatenates empty arrays.

arrays.concat([], []) = []

arrays.join_string

arrays.join_string(array_of_strings, optional_delimiter)

Description

Converts an array of strings into a single string separated by the optional parameter. If no delimiter is provided, the empty string is used.

Param data types

ARRAY_STRINGS, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Here are some examples of how to use the function:

Example 1

This example joins an array with non-null elements and a delimiter.

arrays.join_string(["foo", "bar"], ",") = "foo,bar"

Example 2

This example joins an array with a null element and a delimiter.

arrays.join_string(["foo", NULL, "bar"], ",") = "foo,bar"

Example 3

This example joins an array with non-null elements and no delimiter.

arrays.join_string(["foo", "bar"]) = "foobar"

arrays.length

arrays.length(repeatedField)

Description

Returns the number of repeated field elements.

Param data types

LIST

Return type

NUMBER

Code samples

Example 1

Returns the number of repeated field elements.

arrays.length($e.principal.ip) = 2

Example 2

If multiple repeated fields are along the path, returns the total number of repeated field elements.

arrays.length($e.intermediary.ip) = 3

arrays.max

arrays.max(array_of_ints_or_floats)

Description

Returns the greatest element in an array or zero if the array is empty.

Param data types

ARRAY_INTS|ARRAY_FLOATS

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Here are some examples of how to use the function:

Example 1

This example returns the greater element in an array of integers.

arrays.max([10, 20]) = 20.000000

Example 2

This example returns the greater element in an array of floats.

arrays.max([10.000000, 20.000000]) = 20.000000

arrays.min

arrays.min(array_of_ints_or_floats[, ignore_zeros=false])

Description

Returns the smallest element in an array or zero if the array is empty. If the second, optional argument is set to true, elements equal to zero are ignored.

Param data types

ARRAY_INTS|ARRAY_FLOATS, BOOL

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Here are some examples of how to use the function:

Example 1

This example returns the smallest element in an array of integers.

arrays.min([10, 20]) = 10.000000

Example 2

This example returns the smallest element in an array of floats.

arrays.min([10.000000, 20.000000]) = 10.000000

Example 3

This example returns the smallest element in an array of floats, while ignoring the zeroes.

arrays.min([10.000000, 20.000000, 0.0], true) = 10.000000

arrays.size

arrays.size( array )

Description

Returns the size of the array. Returns 0 for an empty array.

Param data types

ARRAY_STRINGS|ARRAY_INTS|ARRAY_FLOATS

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

This example uses a string array that contains two elements.

arrays.size(["test1", "test2"]) = 2

Example 2

This example uses an int array that contains 3 elements.

arrays.size([1, 2, 3]) = 3

Example 3

This example uses a float array thats contains 1 elements

arrays.size([1.200000]) = 1

Example 4

This example uses an empty array.

arrays.size([]) = 0

arrays.index_to_float

arrays.index_to_float(array, index)

Description

Returns the element at the given index of an array. The element at that index is returned as a float.

The index is an integer value which represents the position of an element in the array. By default, the first element of an array has an index of 0, and the last element has an index of n-1, where n is the size of the array. Negative indexing allows accessing array elements relative to the end of the array. For example, an index of -1 refers to the last element in the array and an index of -2 refers to the second to last element in the array.

Param data types

ARRAY_STRINGS|ARRAY_INTS|ARRAY_FLOATS, INT

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

The following example fetches an element at index 1 from an array of floats.

arrays.index_to_float([1.2, 2.1, 3.5, 4.6], 1) // 2.1

Example 2

The following example fetches an element at index -1 from an array of floats.

arrays.index_to_float([1.2, 2.1, 3.5, 4.6], -1) // 4.6

Example 3

The following example fetches an element for an index greater than the size of the array.

arrays.index_to_float([1.2, 2.1, 3.5, 4.6], 6) // 0.0

Example 4

The following example fetches an element from an empty array.

arrays.index_to_float([], 0) // 0.0

Example 5

The following example fetches an element at index 1 from a string array.

arrays.index_to_float(["1.2", "3.3", "2.4"], 1) // 3.3

Example 6

The following example fetches an element at index 2 from an array of integers.

arrays.index_to_float([1, 3, 2], 2) // 2.0

arrays.index_to_int

arrays.index_to_int(array_of_inputs, index)

Description

Returns the value at a given index in an array as an integer.

The index is an integer value which represents the position of an element in the array. By default, the first element of an array has an index of 0, and the last element has an index of n-1, where n is the size of the array. Negative indexing allows accessing array elements relative to the end of the array. For example, an index of -1 refers to the last element in the array and an index of -2 refers to the second to last element in the array.

Param data types

ARRAY_STRINGS|ARRAY_INTS|ARRAY_FLOATS, INT

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

This function call returns 0 when the value at the index is a non-numeric string.

arrays.index_to_int(["str0", "str1", "str2"], 1) = 0

Example 2

This function returns the element at index -1.

arrays.index_to_int(["44", "11", "22", "33"], -1) = 33

Example 3

Returns 0 for the out-of-bounds element.

arrays.index_to_int(["44", "11", "22", "33"], 5) = 0

Example 4

This function fetches the element from the float array at index 1.

arrays.index_to_int([1.100000, 1.200000, 1.300000], 1) = 1

Example 5

This function fetches the element from the int array at index 0.

arrays.index_to_int([1, 2, 3], 0) = 1

arrays.index_to_str

arrays.index_to_str(array, index)

Description

Returns the element at the given index from the array as a string. The index is an integer value that represents the position of an element in the array. By default, the first element of an array has an index of 0, and the last element has an index of n-1, where n is the size of the array. Negative indexing allows accessing array elements from the end of the array. For example, an index of -1 refers to the last element in the array and an index of -2 refers to the second to last element in the array.

Param data types

ARRAY_STRINGS|ARRAY_INTS|ARRAY_FLOATS, INT

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

The following example fetches an element at index 1 from an array of strings.

arrays.index_to_str(["test1", "test2", "test3", "test4"], 1) // "test2"

Example 2

The following example fetches an element at index -1 (last element of the array) from an array of strings.

arrays.index_to_str(["test1", "test2", "test3", "test4"], -1) // "test4"

Example 3

The following example fetches an element for an index greater than the size of the array, which returns an empty string.

arrays.index_to_str(["test1", "test2", "test3", "test4"], 6) // ""

Example 4

The following example fetches an element from an empty array.

arrays.index_to_str([], 0) // ""

Example 5

The following example fetches an element at index 0 from an array of floats. The output is returned as a string.

arrays.index_to_str([1.200000, 3.300000, 2.400000], 0) // "1.2"

Example 6

The following example fetches an element at index 2 from an array of integers. The output is in the form of a string.

arrays.index_to_str([1, 3, 2], 2) // "2"

cast.as_bool

cast.as_bool(string_or_int)

Description

Function converts an int or string value into a bool value. Function calls with values that cannot be casted will return FALSE. Returns TRUE only for integer 1 and case insensitive string 'true'.

Param data types

INT|STRING

Return type

BOOL

Code samples

Example 1

This example shows how to cast a non-boolean string

cast.as_bool("123") = false

Example 2

Truthy integer (1)

cast.as_bool(1) = true

Example 3

Truthy string

cast.as_bool("true") = true

Example 4

Capital truthy string

cast.as_bool("TRUE") = true

Example 5

Negative integer

cast.as_bool(-1) = false

Example 6

False integer (0)

cast.as_bool(0) = false

Example 7

empty string

cast.as_bool("") = false

cast.as_float

cast.as_float(string_to_cast)

Description

Converts a numeric string into a float. Any function calls with values that cannot be casted return 0. Floats maintain precision up to 7 decimal digits.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

Casting a non-numeric string returns 0.

cast.as_float("str") = 0.0000000

Example 2

Casting an empty string returns 0.

cast.as_float("") = 0.0000000

Example 3

Casting a valid numeric string returns a float value.

cast.as_float("1.012345678") = 1.0123456

fingerprint

hash.fingerprint2011(byteOrString)

Description

This function calculates the fingerprint2011 hash of an input byte sequence or string. This function returns an unsigned INT value in the range [2, 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF].

Param data types

BTYE, STRING

Return type

INT

Code sample

id_fingerprint = hash.fingerprint2011("user123")

group

group(field1, field2, field3, ...)

Description

Group fields of a similar type into a placeholder variable.

In UDM search, grouped fields are used to search across multiple fields of a similar type. The group function is similar to grouped fields except that it lets you select which fields you want grouped together to trigger a detection. You can use the group function for gathering information about a specific entity (for example, a hostname, IP address, or userid) across different Noun types.

Code samples

Example 1

Group all the IP addresses together and provide a descending count of the most prevalent IP address in the time range scanned.

$ip = group(principal.ip, about.ip, target.ip)
$ip != ""
match:
  $ip
outcome:
  $count = count_distinct(metadata.id)
order:
  $count desc

hash.sha256

hash.sha256(string)

Description

Returns a SHA-256 hash of the input string.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

This example shows the SHA-256 hash when the input is a valid string.

hash.sha256("str") = "8c25cb3686462e9a86d2883c5688a22fe738b0bbc85f458d2d2b5f3f667c6d5a"

Example 2

This example shows the SHA-256 hash when the input is an empty string.

hash.sha256("") = "e3b0c44298fc1c149afbf4c8996fb92427ae41e4649b934ca495991b7852b855"

math.abs

math.abs(numericExpression)

Description

Returns the absolute value of an integer or float expression.

Param data types

NUMBER

Return type

NUMBER

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns True if the event was more than 5 minutes from the time specified (in seconds from the Unix epoch), regardless of whether the event came before or after the time specified. A call to math.abs cannot depend on multiple variables or placeholders. For example, you cannot replace the hardcoded time value of 1643687343 in the following example with $e2.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds.

300 < math.abs($e1.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds - 1643687343)

math.ceil

math.ceil(number)

Description

Returns the smallest integer that is not less than the given number (rounding up). Will return 0 if the input is null or too big to fit in an int64.

Param data types

FLOAT

Return type

INT

Code samples

This section contains examples of using math.ceil.

Example 1

This example returns the ceil of a whole number.

math.ceil(2.000000) = 2

Example 2

This example returns the ceil of a negative number.

math.ceil(-1.200000) = -1

Example 3

This example returns 0 as the ceil of a number that is too big for a 64 bit integer.

math.ceil(184467440737095516160.0) = 0

math.floor

math.floor(float_val)

Description

Returns the largest integer value that is not greater than the supplied value (rounding down). Returns 0 if the input is null or too large to fit into an int64.

Param data types

FLOAT

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

This example shows a positive number case.

math.floor(1.234568) = 1

Example 2

This example shows a negative number case.

math.floor(-1.234568) = -2

Example 3

This example shows a zero case.

math.floor(0.000000) = 0

math.geo_distance

math.geo_distance(longitude1, latitude1, longitude2, latitude2))

Description

Returns the distance between two geolocations (coordinates). Will return -1 if the geo-coordinate is invalid.

Param data types

FLOAT, FLOAT, FLOAT, FLOAT

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns the distance when all parameters are valid coordinates.

math.geo_distance(-122.020287, 37.407574, -122.021810, 37.407574) = 134.564318

Example 2

This example returns the distance when one of the parameters is a truncated coordinate.

math.geo_distance(-122.000000, 37.407574, -122.021810, 37.407574) = 1926.421905

Example 3

This example returns -1 when one of the parameters is an invalid coordinate.

math.geo_distance(-122.897680, 37.407574, -122.021810, 97.407574) = -1.000000

Example 4

This example returns 0 when coordinates are the same.

math.geo_distance(-122.897680, 37.407574, -122.897680, 37.407574) = 0.000000

math.is_increasing

math.is_increasing(num1, num2, num3)

Description

Takes a list of numeric values (integers or doubles) and returns True if the values are in ascending order, and False otherwise.

Param data types

INT|FLOAT, INT|FLOAT, INT|FLOAT

Return type

BOOL

Code samples

Example 1

This example includes timestamp-like values in seconds.

math.is_increasing(1716769112, 1716769113, 1716769114) = true

Example 2

This example includes one negative double, one zero INT64, and one positive INT64 values.

math.is_increasing(-1.200000, 0, 3) = true

Example 3

This example includes one negative double, one zero INT64, and one negative INT64 values.

math.is_increasing(-1.200000, 0, -3) = false

Example 4

This example includes two negative doubles and one zero INT64 value.

math.is_increasing(-1.200000, -1.50000, 0) = false

Example 5

This example includes one negative double and two values that are the same.

math.is_increasing(-1.200000, 0, 0) = false

math.log

math.log(numericExpression)

Description

Returns the natural log value of an integer or float expression.

Param data types

NUMBER

Return type

NUMBER

Code samples

Example 1

math.log($e1.network.sent_bytes) > 20

math.pow

math.pow(base, exponent)

Description

Returns the value of the first arg raised to the power of the second arg. Returns 0 in case of overflow.

Param data types

base: INT|FLOAT exponent: INT|FLOAT

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

This example shows an integer case.

math.pow(2, 2) // 4.00

Example 2

This example shows a fraction base case.

math.pow(2.200000, 3) // 10.648

Example 3

This example shows a fraction base and power case.

math.pow(2.200000, 1.200000) // 2.575771

Example 4

This example shows a negative power case.

math.pow(3, -3) // 0.037037

Example 5

This example shows a fraction power case.

math.pow(3, -1.200000) // 0.267581

Example 6

This example shows a negative base case.

math.pow(-3, -3) // -0.037037

Example 7

This example shows a zero base case.

math.pow(0, 3) // 0

Example 8

This example shows a zero power case.

math.pow(9223372036854775807, 0) // 1

Example 9

This example shows a large base case.

math.pow(9223372036854775807, 1.200000) // 57262152889751593549824

math.random

math.random()

Description

Generates a pseudo-random value of type DOUBLE in the range of [0, 1), inclusive of 0 and exclusive of 1.

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

The following example checks whether the random value is in the range [0, 1). none if(math.random() >= 0 and math.random() < 1) = true

math.round

math.round(numericExpression, decimalPlaces)

Description

Returns a value rounded to the nearest integer or to the specified number of decimal places.

Param data types

NUMBER

Return type

NUMBER

Code samples

math.round(10.7) // returns 11
math.round(1.2567, 2) // returns 1.25
math.round(-10.7) // returns -11
math.round(-1.2) // returns -1
math.round(4) // returns 4, math.round(integer) returns the integer

math.sqrt

math.sqrt(number)

Description

Returns the square root of the given number. Returns 0 in case of negative numbers.

Param data types

INT|FLOAT

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns the square root of an int argument.

math.sqrt(3) = 1.732051

Example 2

This example returns the square root of a negative int argument.

math.sqrt(-3) = 0.000000

Example 3

This example returns the square root of zero argument.

math.sqrt(0) = 0.000000

Example 4

This example returns the square root of a float argument.

math.sqrt(9.223372) = 3.037000

Example 5

This example returns the square root of a negative float argument.

math.sqrt(-1.200000) = 0.000000

metrics

Metrics functions can aggregate large amounts of historical data. You can use this in your rule using metrics.functionName() in the outcome section.

For more information, see YARA-L Metrics.

net.ip_in_range_cidr

net.ip_in_range_cidr(ipAddress, subnetworkRange)

Description

Returns true when the given IP address is within the specified subnetwork.

You can use YARA-L to search for UDM events across all of the IP addresses within a subnetwork using the net.ip_in_range_cidr() statement. Both IPv4 and IPv6 are supported.

To search across a range of IP addresses, specify an IP UDM field and a CIDR range. YARA-L can handle both singular and repeating IP address fields.

To search across a range of IP addresses, specify an ip UDM field and a Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) range. YARA-L can handle both singular and repeating IP address fields.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

BOOL

Code samples

Example 1

IPv4 example:

net.ip_in_range_cidr($e.principal.ip, "192.0.2.0/24")

Example 2

IPv6 example:

net.ip_in_range_cidr($e.network.dhcp.yiaddr, "2001:db8::/32")

For an example rule using the net.ip_in_range_cidr()statement, see the example rule in Single Event within Range of IP Addresses.)

re.regex

You can define regular expression matching in YARA-L 2.0 using either of the following syntax:

• Using YARA-L syntax — Related to events. The following is a generic representation of this syntax:

  $e.field = /regex/
  

• Using YARA-L syntax — As a function taking in the following parameters:

  • Field the regular expression is applied to.
  • Regular expression specified as a string.

  The following is a generic representation of this syntax:

  re.regex($e.field, `regex`)
  

Description

This function returns true if the string contains a substring that matches the regular expression provided. It is unnecessary to add .* to the beginning or at the end of the regular expression.

Notes

• To match the exact string or only a prefix or suffix, include the ^ (starting) and $ (ending) anchor characters in the regular expression. For example, /^full$/ matches "full" exactly, while /full/ could match "fullest", "lawfull", and "joyfully".
• If the UDM field includes newline characters, the regexp only matches the first line of the UDM field. To enforce full UDM field matching, add a (?s) to the regular expression. For example, replace /.*allUDM.*/ with /(?s).*allUDM.*/.
• You can use the nocase modifier after strings to indicate that the search should ignore capitalization.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Param expression types

ANY, ANY

Return type

BOOL

Code samples

Example 1

// Equivalent to $e.principal.hostname = /google/
re.regex($e.principal.hostname, "google")

re.capture

re.capture(stringText, regex)

Description

Captures (extracts) data from a string using the regular expression pattern provided in the argument.

This function takes two arguments:

• stringText: the original string to search.
• regex: the regular expression indicating the pattern to search for.

The regular expression can contain 0 or 1 capture groups in parentheses. If the regular expression contains 0 capture groups, the function returns the first entire matching substring. If the regular expression contains 1 capture group, it returns the first matching substring for the capture group. Defining two or more capture groups returns a compiler error.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

In this example, if $e.principal.hostname contains "aaa1bbaa2" the following would be true, because the function returns the first instance. This example has no capture groups.

"aaa1" = re.capture($e.principal.hostname, "a+[1-9]")

Example 2

This example captures everything after the @ symbol in an email. If the $e.network.email.from field is test@google.com, the example returns google.com. The following example contains one capture group.

"google.com" = re.capture($e.network.email.from , "@(.*)")

Example 3

If the regular expression does not match any substring in the text, the function returns an empty string. You can omit events where no match occurs by excluding the empty string, which is especially important when you are using re.capture() with an inequality:

// Exclude the empty string to omit events where no match occurs.
"" != re.capture($e.network.email.from , "@(.*)")

// Exclude a specific string with an inequality.
"google.com" != re.capture($e.network.email.from , "@(.*)")

re.replace

re.replace(stringText, replaceRegex, replacementText)

Description

Performs a regular expression replacement.

This function takes three arguments:

• stringText: the original string.
• replaceRegex: the regular expression indicating the pattern to search for.
• replacementText: The text to insert into each match.

Returns a new string derived from the original stringText, where all substrings that match the pattern in replaceRegex are replaced with the value in replacementText. You can use backslash-escaped digits (\1 to \9) within replacementText to insert text matching the corresponding parenthesized group in the replaceRegex pattern. Use \0 to refer to the entire matching text.

The function replaces non-overlapping matches and will prioritize replacing the first occurrence found. For example, re.replace("banana", "ana", "111") returns the string "b111na".

Param data types

STRING, STRING, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

This example captures everything after the @ symbol in an email, replaces com with org, and then returns the result. Notice the use of nested functions.

"email@google.org" = re.replace($e.network.email.from, "com", "org")

Example 2

This example uses backslash-escaped digits in the replacementText argument to reference matches to the replaceRegex pattern.

"test1.com.google" = re.replace(
                       $e.principal.hostname, // holds "test1.test2.google.com"
                       "test2\.([a-z]*)\.([a-z]*)",
                       "\\2.\\1"  // \\1 holds "google", \\2 holds "com"
                     )

Example 3

Note the following cases when dealing with empty strings and re.replace():

Using empty string as replaceRegex:

// In the function call below, if $e.principal.hostname contains "name",
// the result is: 1n1a1m1e1, because an empty string is found next to
// every character in `stringText`.
re.replace($e.principal.hostname, "", "1")

To replace an empty string, you can use "^$" as replaceRegex:

// In the function call below, if $e.principal.hostname contains the empty
// string, "", the result is: "none".
re.replace($e.principal.hostname, "^$", "none")

sample_rate

optimization.sample_rate(byteOrString, rateNumerator, rateDenominator)

Description

This function determines whether to include an event based on a deterministic sampling strategy. This function returns:

• true for a fraction of input values, equivalent to (rateNumerator / rateDenominator), indicating that the event should be included in the sample.
• false indicating that the event shouldn't be included in the sample.

This function is useful for optimization scenarios where you want to process only a subset of events. Equivalent to:

hash.fingerprint2011(byteOrString) % rateDenominator < rateNumerator

Param data types

• byteOrString: Expression that evaluates to either a BYTE or STRING.
• rateNumerator: 'INT'
• rateDenominator: 'INT'

Return type

BOOL

Code sample

events:
    $e.metadata.event_type = "NETWORK_CONNECTION"
    $asset_id = $e.principal.asset.asset_id
    optimization.sample_rate($e.metadata.id, 1, 5) // Only 1 out of every 5 events

  match:
    $asset_id over 1h

  outcome:
    $event_count = count_distinct($e.metadata.id)
  // estimate the usage by multiplying by the inverse of the sample rate
    $usage_past_hour = sum(5.0 * $e.network.sent_bytes)

 condition:
  // Requiring a certain number of events after sampling avoids bias (e.g. a
  // device with just 1 connection will still show up 20% of the time and
  // if we multiply that traffic by 5, we'll get an incorrect estimate)
  $e and ($usage_past_hour > 1000000000) and $event_count >= 100

strings.base64_decode

strings.base64_decode(encodedString)

Description

Returns a string containing the base64 decoded version of the encoded string.

This function takes one base64 encoded string as an argument. If encodedString is not a valid base64 encoded string, the function returns encodedString unchanged.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

"test" = strings.base64_decode($e.principal.domain.name)

strings.coalesce

strings.coalesce(a, b, c, ...)

Description

This function takes an unlimited number of arguments and returns the value of the first expression that does not evaluate to an empty string (for example, "non-zero value"). If all arguments evaluate to an empty string, the function call returns an empty string.

The arguments can be literals, event fields, or function calls. All arguments must be of STRING type. If any arguments are event fields, the attributes must be from the same event.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

The following example includes string variables as arguments. The condition evaluates to true when (1) $e.network.email.from is suspicious@gmail.com or (2) $e.network.email.from is empty and $e.network.email.to is suspicious@gmail.com.

"suspicious@gmail.com" = strings.coalesce($e.network.email.from, $e.network.email.to)

Example 2

The following example calls the coalesce function with more than two arguments. This condition compares the first non-null IP address from event $e against values in the reference list ip_watchlist. The order that the arguments are coalesced in this call is the same as the order they are enumerated in the rule condition:

1. $e.principal.ip is evaluated first.
2. $e.src.ip is evaluated next.
3. $e.target.ip is evaluated next.
4. Finally, the string "No IP" is returned as a default value if the previous ip fields are unset.

strings.coalesce($e.principal.ip, $e.src.ip, $e.target.ip, "No IP") in %ip_watchlist

Example 3

The following example attempts to coalesce principal.hostname from event $e1 and event $e2. It will return a compiler error because the arguments are different event variables.

// returns a compiler error
"test" = strings.coalesce($e1.principal.hostname, $e2.principal.hostname)

strings.concat

strings.concat(a, b, c, ...)

Description

Returns the concatenation of an unlimited number of items, each of which can be a string, integer, or float.

If any arguments are event fields, the attributes must be from the same event.

Param data types

STRING, FLOAT, INT

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

The following example includes a string variable and integer variable as arguments. Both principal.hostname and principal.port are from the same event, $e, and are concatenated to return a string.

"google:80" = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, ":", $e.principal.port)

Example 2

The following example includes a string variable and string literal as arguments.

"google-test" = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, "-test") // Matches the event when $e.principal.hostname = "google"

Example 3

The following example includes a string variable and float literal as arguments. When represented as strings, floats that are whole numbers are formatted without the decimal point (for example, 1.0 is represented as "1"). Additionally, floats that exceed sixteen decimal digits are truncated to the sixteenth decimal place.

"google2.5" = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, 2.5)

Example 4

The following example includes a string variable, string literal, integer variable, and float literal as arguments. All variables are from the same event, $e, and are concatenated with the literals to return a string.

"google-test802.5" = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, "-test", $e.principal.port, 2.5)

Example 5

The following example attempts to concatenate principal.port from event $e1, with principal.hostname from event $e2. It will return a compiler error because the arguments are different event variables.

// Will not compile
"test" = strings.concat($e1.principal.port, $e2.principal.hostname)

strings.contains

strings.contains( str, substr )

Description

Returns true if a given string contains the specified substring. Otherwise it returns false.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

BOOL

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns true because the string has a substring "is".

strings.contains("thisisastring", "is") = true

Example 2

This example returns false because the string does not have substring "that".

strings.contains("thisisastring", "that") = false

strings.count_substrings

strings.count_substrings(string_to_search_in, substring_to_count)

Description

When given a string and a substring, returns an int64 of the count of non-overlapping occurrences of the substring within the string.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

INT

Code samples

This section contains examples that calculate the number of times a substring appears in a given string.

Example 1

This example uses a non-null string and a non-null single substring character.

strings.count_substrings("this`string`has`four`backticks", "`") = 4

Example 2

This example uses a non-null string and a non-null substring greater than one character.

strings.count_substrings("str", "str") = 1

Example 3

This example uses a non-null string and an empty substring.

strings.count_substrings("str", "") = 0

Example 4

This example uses an empty string and a non-null substring greater than one character.

strings.count_substrings("", "str") = 0

Example 5

This example uses an empty string and an empty substring.

strings.count_substrings("", "") = 0

Example 6

This example uses a non-null string and a non-null substring that is greater than one character and greater than one occurrence.

strings.count_substrings("fooABAbarABAbazABA", "AB") = 3

Example 7

This example uses a non-null string and a non-null substring that is greater than one character and greater than one occurrence. It highlights the limitation with overlapping substring occurrences

strings.count_substrings("ABABABA", "ABA") = 2

strings.extract_domain

strings.extract_domain(url_string)

Description

Extracts the domain from a string.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

This example shows an empty string

strings.extract_domain("") = ""

Example 2

random string, not a URL

strings.extract_domain("1234") = ""

Example 3

multiple backslaches

strings.extract_domain("\\\\") = ""

Example 4

non-alphabet characters handled gracefully

strings.extract_domain("http://例子.卷筒纸.中国") = "卷筒纸.中国"

Example 5

handling URIs

strings.extract_domain("mailto:?to=&subject=&body=") = ""

Example 6

multiple characters before actual URL

strings.extract_domain("     \t   !$5*^)&dahgsdfs;http://www.google.com") = "google.com"

Example 7

special characters in URI #

strings.extract_domain("test#@google.com") = ""

Example 8

special characters in URL #

strings.extract_domain("https://test#@google.com") = ""

Example 9

positive test case

strings.extract_domain("https://google.co.in") = "google.co.in"

strings.extract_hostname

strings.extract_hostname(string)

Description

Extracts the hostname from a string. This function is case sensitive.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns an empty string.

strings.extract_hostname("") = ""

Example 2

random string, not a URL

strings.extract_hostname("1234") = "1234"

Example 3

multiple backslashes

strings.extract_hostname("\\\\") = ""

Example 4

non-English characters handled gracefully

strings.extract_hostname("http://例子.卷筒纸.中国") = "例子.卷筒纸.中国"

Example 5

handling URIs

strings.extract_hostname("mailto:?to=&subject=&body=") = "mailto"

Example 6

multiple characters before actual URL

strings.extract_hostname("     \t   !$5*^)&dahgsdfs;http://www.google.com") = "www.google.com"

Example 7

special characters in URI #

strings.extract_hostname("test#@google.com") = "test"

Example 8

special characters in URL #

strings.extract_hostname("https://test#@google.com") = "test"

strings.from_hex

strings.from_hex(hex_string)

Description

Returns the bytes associated with the given hex string.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

BYTES

Code samples

Get bytes associated with a given hex string.

Example 1

This example shows non-hex character conversions.

strings.from_hex("str") // returns empty bytes

Example 2

This example shows input with empty string.

strings.from_hex("") // returns empty bytes

Example 3

This example shows hex string conversion.

strings.from_hex("1234") // returns 1234 bytes

Example 4

This example shows non-ASCII characters conversion.

strings.from_hex("筒纸.中国") // returns empty bytes

strings.ltrim

strings.ltrim(string_to_trim, cutset)

Description

Trims leading white spaces from a given string. This function removes leading characters present in that cutset.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

The following are example use cases.

Example 1

This example uses the same first and second argument.

strings.ltrim("str", "str") = ""

Example 2

This example uses an empty string as the second argument.

strings.ltrim("str", "") = "str"

Example 3

This example uses an empty string as the first argument, and a string as the second argument.

strings.ltrim("", "str") = ""

Example 4

This example uses strings that contain white spaces, and a string as the second argument.

strings.ltrim("a aastraa aa ", " a") = "straa aa "

strings.reverse

strings.reverse(STRING)

Description

Returns a string that is the reverse of the input string.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

The following example passes a short string.

strings.reverse("str") = "rts"  // The function returns 'rts'.

Example 2

The following example passes an empty string.

strings.reverse("") = ""

Example 3

The following example passes a palindrome.

strings.reverse("tacocat") = "tacocat"

strings.rtrim

strings.rtrim(string_to_trim, cutset)

Description

Trims trailing white spaces from a given string. Removes trailing characters that are present in that cutset.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

The following are example use cases.

Example 1

The following example passes the same string as the first and second argument.

strings.rtrim("str", "str") = ""

Example 2

The following example passes an empty string as the second argument.

strings.rtrim("str", "") = "str"

Example 3

The following example passes an empty string as the first argument and a non-empty string as the second argument.

strings.rtrim("", "str") = ""

Example 4

The following example passes a string containing white spaces as the first argument and a non-empty string as the second argument.

strings.rtrim("a aastraa aa ", " a") = "a aasstr"

strings.to_lower

strings.to_lower(stringText)

Description

This function takes an input string and returns a string after changing all characters to lowercase

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

The following example returns true.

"test@google.com" = strings.to_lower($e.network.email.to)

strings.to_upper

strings.to_upper(string_val)

Description

Returns the original string with all alphabetic characters in uppercase.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

The following example returns the supplied argument in uppercase.

strings.to_upper("example") = "EXAMPLE"

strings.trim

strings.trim(string_to_trim, cutset)

Description

Trims leading and trailing white spaces from a given string. Also, remove unwanted characters (specified by the cutset argument) from the input string.

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

The following are example use cases.

Example 1

In the following example, the same string is passed as the input string and the cutset, which results in an empty string.

strings.trim("str", "str") // ""

Example 2

In the following example, an empty string is passed as the cutset, which results in the original string str because there are no characters specified in the cutset to remove.

strings.trim("str", "") = "str"

Example 3

In the following example, the function yields an empty string because the input string is already empty and there are no characters to remove.

strings.trim("", "str") = ""

Example 4

In the following example, the function yields str because the trim function removes the following:

• trailing whitespace in "a aastraa aa "
• the characters specified in the cutset (space, a)

strings.trim("a aastraa aa ", " a") = "str"

strings.url_decode

strings.url_decode(url_string)

Description

Given a URL string, decode the escape characters and handle UTF-8 characters that have been encoded. Returns empty string if decoding fails.

Param data types

STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

This example shows a positive test case.

strings.url_decode("three%20nine%20four") = "three nine four"

Example 2

This example shows an empty string case.

strings.url_decode("") // ""

Example 3

This example shows non-alphabet characters handling.

strings.url_decode("%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%2B%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B") // "上海+中國"

Example 4

This example shows a sample URL decoding.

strings.url_decode("http://www.google.com%3Fparam1%3D%22+1+%3E+2+%22%26param2%3D2%3B") // 'http://www.google.com?param1="+1+>+2+"&param2=2;'

timestamp.as_unix_seconds

timestamp.as_unix_seconds(timestamp [, time_zone])

Description

This function returns an integer representing the number of seconds past a Unix epoch for the given timestamp string.

• timestamp is a string representing a valid epoch timestamp. The format needs to be %F %T.
• time_zone is optional and is a string representing a time zone. If omitted, the default is GMT. You can specify time zones using string literals. The options are as follows:
  • The TZ database name, for example America/Los_Angeles. For more information, see the list of tz database time zones on Wikipedia.
  • The time zone offset from UTC, in the format(+|-)H[H][:M[M]], for example: "-08:00".

Here are examples of valid time_zone specifiers, which you can pass as the second argument to time extraction functions:

"America/Los_Angeles", or "-08:00". ("PST" is not supported)
"America/New_York", or "-05:00". ("EST" is not supported)
"Europe/London"
"UTC"
"GMT"

Param data types

STRING, STRING

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

Valid epoch timestamp

timestamp.as_unix_seconds("2024-02-22 10:43:00") = 1708598580

Example 2

Valid epoch timestamp with the America/New_York time zone

timestamp.as_unix_seconds("2024-02-22 10:43:00", "America/New_York") = 1708616580

timestamp.current_seconds

timestamp.current_seconds()

Description

Returns an integer representing the current time in Unix seconds. This is approximately equal to the detection timestamp and is based on when the rule is run. This function is a synonym of the function timestamp.now().

Param data types

NONE

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

The following example returns true if the certificate has been expired for more than 24 hours. It calculates the time difference by subtracting the current Unix seconds, and then comparing using a greater than operator.

86400 < timestamp.current_seconds() - $e.network.tls.certificate.not_after

timestamp.get_date

timestamp.get_date(unix_seconds [, time_zone])

Description

This function returns a string in the format YYYY-MM-DD, representing the day a timestamp is in.

• unix_seconds is an integer representing the number of seconds past Unix epoch, such as $e.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds, or a placeholder containing that value.
• time_zone is optional and is a string representing a time_zone. If omitted, the default is "GMT". You can specify time zones using string literals. The options are:
  • The TZ database name, for example "America/Los_Angeles". For more information, see the "TZ Database Name" column from this page
  • The time zone offset from UTC, in the format(+|-)H[H][:M[M]], for example: "-08:00".

Here are examples of valid time_zone specifiers, which you can pass as the second argument to time extraction functions:

"America/Los_Angeles", or "-08:00". ("PST" is not supported)
"America/New_York", or "-05:00". ("EST" is not supported)
"Europe/London"
"UTC"
"GMT"

Param data types

INT, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

In this example, the time_zone argument is omitted, so it defaults to "GMT".

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_date($ts) = "2024-02-19"

Example 2

This example uses a string literal to define the time_zone.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_date($ts, "America/Los_Angeles") = "2024-02-20"

timestamp.get_minute

timestamp.get_minute(unix_seconds [, time_zone])

Description

This function returns an integer in the range [0, 59] representing the minute.

• unix_seconds is an integer representing the number of seconds past Unix epoch, such as $e.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds, or a placeholder containing that value.
• time_zone is optional and is a string representing a time zone. If omitted, the default is "GMT". You can specify time zones using string literals. The options are:
  • The TZ database name, for example "America/Los_Angeles". For more information, see the "TZ Database Name" column from this page
  • The time zone offset from UTC, in the format(+|-)H[H][:M[M]], for example: "-08:00".

Here are examples of valid time_zone specifiers, which you can pass as the second argument to time extraction functions:

"America/Los_Angeles", or "-08:00". ("PST" is not supported)
"America/New_York", or "-05:00". ("EST" is not supported)
"Europe/London"
"UTC"
"GMT"

Param data types

INT, STRING

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

In this example, the time_zone argument is omitted, so it defaults to "GMT".

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_hour($ts) = 15

Example 2

This example uses a string literal to define the time_zone.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_hour($ts, "America/Los_Angeles") = 15

timestamp.get_hour

timestamp.get_hour(unix_seconds [, time_zone])

Description

This function returns an integer in the range [0, 23] representing the hour.

• unix_seconds is an integer representing the number of seconds past Unix epoch, such as $e.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds, or a placeholder containing that value.
• time_zone is optional and is a string representing a time zone. If omitted, the default is "GMT". You can specify time zones using string literals. The options are:
  • The TZ database name, for example "America/Los_Angeles". For more information, see the "TZ Database Name" column from this page
  • The time zone offset from UTC, in the format(+|-)H[H][:M[M]], for example: "-08:00".

Here are examples of valid time_zone specifiers, which you can pass as the second argument to time extraction functions:

"America/Los_Angeles", or "-08:00". ("PST" is not supported)
"America/New_York", or "-05:00". ("EST" is not supported)
"Europe/London"
"UTC"
"GMT"

Param data types

INT, STRING

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

In this example, the time_zone argument is omitted, so it defaults to "GMT".

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_hour($ts) = 15

Example 2

This example uses a string literal to define the time_zone.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_hour($ts, "America/Los_Angeles") = 15

timestamp.get_day_of_week

timestamp.get_day_of_week(unix_seconds [, time_zone])

Description

This function returns an integer in the range [1, 7] representing the day of week starting with Sunday. For example, 1 = Sunday and 2 = Monday.

• unix_seconds is an integer representing the number of seconds past Unix epoch, such as $e.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds, or a placeholder containing that value.
• time_zone is optional and is a string representing a time_zone. If omitted, the default is "GMT". You can specify time zones using string literals. The options are:
  • The TZ database name, for example "America/Los_Angeles". For more information, see the "TZ Database Name" column from this page
  • The time zone offset from UTC, in the format(+|-)H[H][:M[M]], for example: "-08:00".

Here are examples of valid time_zone specifiers, which you can pass as the second argument to time extraction functions:

"America/Los_Angeles", or "-08:00". ("PST" is not supported)
"America/New_York", or "-05:00". ("EST" is not supported)
"Europe/London"
"UTC"
"GMT"

Param data types

INT, STRING

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

In this example, the time_zone argument is omitted, so it defaults to "GMT".

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_day_of_week($ts) = 6

Example 2

This example uses a string literal to define the time_zone.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_day_of_week($ts, "America/Los_Angeles") = 6

timestamp.get_timestamp

timestamp.get_timestamp(unix_seconds, optional timestamp_format, optional timezone)

Description

This function returns a string in the format YYYY-MM-DD, representing the day a timestamp is in.

• unix_seconds is an integer representing the number of seconds past Unix epoch, such as $e.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds, or a placeholder containing that value.
• timestamp_format is optional and is a string representing the format for the timestamp. If omitted, the default is %F %T. You can specify the format using string literals. For options, see Format elements for date and time parts
• time_zone is optional and is a string representing a time zone. If omitted, the default is GMT. You can specify time zones using string literals. The options are as follows:
  • The IANA Time Zone (TZ) database name, for example, America/Los_Angeles. For more information, see the list of tz database time zones on Wikipedia.
  • The time zone offset from UTC, in the format (+|-)H[H][:M[M]], for example: "-08:00".

Here are examples of valid time_zone specifiers, which you can pass as the second argument to time extraction functions:

"America/Los_Angeles", or "-08:00". ("PST" is not supported)
"America/New_York", or "-05:00". ("EST" is not supported)
"Europe/London"
"UTC"
"GMT"

Param data types

INT, STRING, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

In this example, the time_zone argument is omitted, so it defaults to GMT.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_timestamp($ts) = "2024-02-22 10:43:51"

Example 2

This example uses a string literal to define the time_zone.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_timestamp($ts, "%F %T", "America/Los_Angeles") = "2024-02-22 10:43:51"

Example 3

This example uses a string literal to define the timestamp_format.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_timestamp($ts, "%Y-%m", "GMT") = "2024-02"

timestamp.get_week

timestamp.get_week(unix_seconds [, time_zone])

Description

This function returns an integer in the range [0, 53] representing the week of the year. Weeks begin with Sunday. Dates before the first Sunday of the year are in week 0.

• unix_seconds is an integer representing the number of seconds past Unix epoch, such as $e.metadata.event_timestamp.seconds, or a placeholder containing that value.
• time_zone is optional and is a string representing a time zone. If omitted, the default is "GMT". You can specify time zones using string literals. The options are:
  • The TZ database name, for example "America/Los_Angeles". For more information, see the "TZ Database Name" column from this page
  • The time zone offset from UTC, in the format(+|-)H[H][:M[M]], for example: "-08:00".

Here are examples of valid time_zone specifiers, which you can pass as the second argument to time extraction functions:

"America/Los_Angeles", or "-08:00". ("PST" is not supported)
"America/New_York", or "-05:00". ("EST" is not supported)
"Europe/London"
"UTC"
"GMT"

Param data types

INT, STRING

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

In this example, the time_zone argument is omitted, so it defaults to "GMT".

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_week($ts) = 0

Example 2

This example uses a string literal to define the time_zone.

$ts = $e.metadata.collected_timestamp.seconds

timestamp.get_week($ts, "America/Los_Angeles") = 0

timestamp.now

timestamp.now()

Description

Returns the number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC. This is also known as Unix epoch time.

Return type

INT

Code samples

Example 1

The following example returns a timestamp for code executed on May 22, 2024 at 18:16:59.

timestamp.now() = 1716401819 // Unix epoch time in seconds for May 22, 2024 at 18:16:59

window.avg

window.avg(numeric_values [, should_ignore_zero_values])

Description

Returns the average of the input values (which can be Integers or Floats). Setting the optional second argument to true ignores zero values.

Param data types

INT|FLOAT

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

This example shows the integer average.

// This rule sets the outcome $size_mode to the average
// file size in the 5 minute match window.
events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $size_mode = window.avg($e.file.size) // yields 2.5 if the event file size values in the match window are 1, 2, 3 and 4

Example 2

This example shows the float average.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $size_mode = window.avg($e.file.size) // yields 1.75 if the event file size values in the match window are 1.1 and 2.4

Example 3

Negative input average

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $size_mode = window.avg($e.file.size) // yields 0.6 if the event file size values in the match window are -1.1, 1.1, 0.0 and 2.4

Example 4

0 returns 0

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $size_mode = window.avg($e.file.size) // yields 0 if the event file size values in the match window is 0

Example 5

Ignoring 0 values

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $size_mode = window.avg($e.file.size, true) // yields 394 if the event file size values in the match window are 0, 0, 0 and 394

window.first

window.first(values_to_sort_by, values_to_return)

Description

This aggregation function returns a string value derived from an event with the lowest correlated int value in the match window. An example use case is getting the userid from the event with the lowest timestamp in the match window (earliest event).

Param data types

INT, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Get a string value derived from an event with the lowest correlated int value in the match window.

// This rule sets the outcome $first_event to the lowest correlated int value
// in the 5 minute match window.
events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $first_event = window.first($e.metadata.timestamp.seconds, $e.metadata.event_type) // yields v1 if the events in the match window are 1, 2 and 3 and corresponding values v1, v2, and v3.

window.last

window.last(values_to_sort_by, values_to_return)

Description

This aggregation function returns a string value derived from an event with the highest correlated int value in the match window. An example use case is getting the userid from the event with the lowest timestamp in the match window (highest timestamp).

Param data types

INT, STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Get a string value derived from an event with the highest correlated int value in the match window.

// This rule sets the outcome $last_event to the highest correlated int value
// in the 5 minute match window.
events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $last_event = window.first($e.metadata.timestamp.seconds, $e.metadata.event_type) // yields v3 if the events in the match window are 1, 2 and 3 and corresponding values v1, v2, and v3.

window.median

window.median(numeric_values, should_ignore_zero_values)

Description

Return the median of the input values. If there are 2 median values, only 1 will be non-deterministically chosen as the return value.

Param data types

INT|FLOAT, BOOL

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns the median when the input values aren't zero.

rule median_file_size {
    meta:
    events:
      $e.metadata.event_type = "FILE_COPY"
        $userid = $e.principal.user.userid
    match:
      $userid over 1h
    outcome:
      $median_file_size = window.median($e.principal.file.size) // returns 2 if the file sizes in the match window are [1, 2, 3]
  condition:
      $e
}

Example 2

This example returns the median when the input includes some zero values that shouldn't be ignored.

rule median_file_size {
    meta:
    events:
      $e.metadata.event_type = "FILE_COPY"
        $userid = $e.principal.user.userid
    match:
      $userid over 1h
    outcome:
      $median_file_size = window.median($e.principal.file.size) // returns 1 if the file sizes in the match window are [0,0, 1, 2, 3]
  condition:
      $e
}

Example 3

This example returns the median when the input includes some zero values which should be ignored.

rule median_file_size {
    meta:
    events:
      $e.metadata.event_type = "FILE_COPY"
        $userid = $e.principal.user.userid
    match:
      $userid over 1h
    outcome:
      $median_file_size = window.median($e.principal.file.size, true) // returns 2 if the file sizes in the match window are [0,0, 1, 2, 3]
  condition:
      $e
}

Example 4

This example returns the median when the input includes all zero values which should be ignored.

rule median_file_size {
    meta:
    events:
      $e.metadata.event_type = "FILE_COPY"
        $userid = $e.principal.user.userid
    match:
      $userid over 1h
    outcome:
      $median_file_size = window.median($e.principal.file.size) // returns 0 if the file sizes in the match window are [0,0]
  condition:
      $e
}

Example 5

This example shows that, when there are multiple medians, only one median is returned.

rule median_file_size {
    meta:
    events:
      $e.metadata.event_type = "FILE_COPY"
        $userid = $e.principal.user.userid
    match:
      $userid over 1h
    outcome:
      $median_file_size = window.median($e.principal.file.size) // returns 1 if the file sizes in the match window are [1, 2, 3, 4]
  condition:
      $e
}

window.mode

window.mode(values)

Description

Return the mode of the input values. In case of multiple possible mode values, only one of those values will be non-deterministically chosen as the return value.

Param data types

INT|FLOAT|STRING

Return type

STRING

Code samples

Example 1

Get mode of the values in the match window.

// This rule sets the outcome $size_mode to the most frequently occurring
// file size in the 5 minute match window.
events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $size_mode = window.mode($e.file.size) // yields 1.6 if the event file size values in the match window are 1.6, 2, and 1.6

window.stddev

window.stddev(numeric_values)

Description

Returns the standard deviation of input values in a match window.

Param data types

INT|FLOAT

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns the standard deviation of integers in a match window.

// This rule creates a detection when the file size stddev in 5 minutes for a user is over a threshold.
events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.stddev($e.file.size) // yields 4.0 if the event file size values in the match window are [10, 14, 18].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 2

Example 2

This example returns the standard deviation of floats in a match window.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.stddev($e.file.size) // yields 4.488686 if the event file size values in the match window are [10.00, 14.80, 18.97].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 2

Example 3

This example returns the standard deviation in a match window that contains negative numbers.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.stddev($e.file.size) // yields 48.644972 if the event file size values in the match window are [-1, -56, -98].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 2

Example 4

This example returns with zero standard deviation when all values in the match window are the same.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.stddev($e.file.size) // yields 0.000000 if the event file size values in the match window are [1, 1, 1].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 2

Example 5

This example returns the standard deviation of a match window containing positive and negative numbers.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.stddev($e.file.size) // yields 1.000000 if the event file size values in the match window are [1, 0, -1].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 10

window.variance

window.variance(values)

Description

This function returns the specified variance of the input values.

Param data types

INT|FLOAT

Return type

FLOAT

Code samples

Example 1

This example returns the variance of all integers.

// This rule creates a detection when the file size variance in 5 minutes for a user is over a threshold.
events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.variance($e.file.size) // yields 16 if the event file size values in the match window are [10, 14, 18].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 10

Example 2

This example returns the variance of all floats.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.variance($e.file.size) // yields 20.148300 if the event file size values in the match window are [10.00, 14.80, 18.97].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 10

Example 3

This example returns the variance of negative numbers.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.variance($e.file.size) // yields 2366.333333 if the event file size values in the match window are [-1, -56, -98].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 10

Example 4

This example returns a small variance value.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.variance($e.file.size) // yields 0.000000 if the event file size values in the match window are [0.000000, 0.000000, 0.000100].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 10

Example 5

This example returns a zero variance.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.variance($e.file.size) // yields 0.000000 if the event file size values in the match window are [1, 1, 1].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 10

Example 6

This example returns the variance of positive and negative numbers.

events:
 $e.user.userid = $userid
match:
 $userid over 5m
outcome:
  $p1 = window.variance($e.file.size) // yields 1.000000 if the event file size values in the match window are [1, 0, -1].
condition:
  $e and #p1 > 10

Function to placeholder assignment

You can assign the result of a function call to a placeholder in the events section. For example:

$placeholder = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, "my-string").

You can then use the placeholder variables in the match, condition, and outcome sections. However, there are two limitations with function to placeholder assignment:

1. Every placeholder in function to placeholder assignment must be assigned to an expression containing an event field. For example, the following examples are valid:

   $ph1 = $e.principal.hostname
   $ph2 = $e.src.hostname
   
   // Both $ph1 and $ph2 have been assigned to an expression containing an event field.
   $ph1 = strings.concat($ph2, ".com")
   

   $ph1 = $e.network.email.from
   $ph2 = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, "@gmail.com")
   
   // Both $ph1 and $ph2 have been assigned to an expression containing an event field.
   $ph1 = strings.to_lower($ph2)
   

   However, the following example is invalid:

   $ph1 = strings.concat($e.principal.hostname, "foo")
   $ph2 = strings.concat($ph1, "bar") // $ph2 has NOT been assigned to an expression containing an event field.
   

2. Function call should depend on one and exactly one event. However, more than one field from the same event can be used in function call arguments. For example, the following is valid:

   $ph = strings.concat($event.principal.hostname, "string2")

   $ph = strings.concat($event.principal.hostname, $event.src.hostname)

   However, the following is invalid:

   $ph = strings.concat("string1", "string2")

   $ph = strings.concat($event.principal.hostname, $anotherEvent.src.hostname)

Reference Lists syntax

See our page on Reference Lists for more information on reference list behavior and reference list syntax.

You can use reference lists in the events or outcome sections. Here is the syntax for using various types of reference lists in a rule:

// STRING reference list
$e.principal.hostname in %string_reference_list

// REGEX reference list
$e.principal.hostname in regex %regex_reference_list

// CIDR reference list
$e.principal.ip in cidr %cidr_reference_list

You can also use the not operator and the nocase operator with reference lists as shown in the following example:

// Exclude events whose hostnames match substrings in my_regex_list.
not $e.principal.hostname in regex %my_regex_list

// Event hostnames must match at least 1 string in my_string_list (case insensitive).
$e.principal.hostname in %my_string_list nocase

The nocase operator is compatible with STRING lists and REGEX lists.

For performance reasons, the Detection Engine restricts reference list usage.

• Maximum in statements in a rule, with or without special operators: 7
• Maximum in statements with the regex operator: 4
• Maximum in statements with the cidr operator: 2

Type checking

Google Security Operations performs type checking against your YARA-L syntax as you create rules within the interface. The type checking errors displayed help you to revise the rule in such a way as to ensure that it will work as expected.

The following are examples of invalid predicates:

// $e.target.port is of type integer which cannot be compared to a string.
$e.target.port = "80"

// "LOGIN" is not a valid event_type enum value.
$e.metadata.event_type = "LOGIN"

Detection Event Sampling

Detections from multi-event rules contain event samples to provide context about the events that caused the detection. There is a limit of up to 10 event samples for each event variable defined in the rule. For example, if a rule defines 2 event variables, each detection can have up to 20 event samples. The limit applies to each event variable separately. If one event variable has 2 applicable events in this detection, and the other event variable has 15 applicable events, the resulting detection contains 12 event samples (2 + 10).

Any event samples over the limit are omitted from the detection.

If you want more information about the events that caused your detection, you can use aggregations in the outcome section to output additional information in your detection.

If you are viewing detections in the UI, you can download all events samples for a detection. For more information, see Download events.