Query execution operators

Introduction

This page describes details about operators used in Spanner Query execution plans. To learn how to retrieve an execution plan for a specific query using the Google Cloud console, see Understanding how Spanner executes queries.

The queries and execution plans on this page are based on the following database schema:

CREATE TABLE Singers (
  SingerId   INT64 NOT NULL,
  FirstName  STRING(1024),
  LastName   STRING(1024),
  SingerInfo BYTES(MAX),
  BirthDate  DATE
) PRIMARY KEY(SingerId);

CREATE INDEX SingersByFirstLastName ON Singers(FirstName, LastName);

CREATE TABLE Albums (
  SingerId        INT64 NOT NULL,
  AlbumId         INT64 NOT NULL,
  AlbumTitle      STRING(MAX),
  MarketingBudget INT64
) PRIMARY KEY(SingerId, AlbumId),
  INTERLEAVE IN PARENT Singers ON DELETE CASCADE;

CREATE INDEX AlbumsByAlbumTitle ON Albums(AlbumTitle);

CREATE INDEX AlbumsByAlbumTitle2 ON Albums(AlbumTitle) STORING (MarketingBudget);

CREATE TABLE Songs (
  SingerId  INT64 NOT NULL,
  AlbumId   INT64 NOT NULL,
  TrackId   INT64 NOT NULL,
  SongName  STRING(MAX),
  Duration  INT64,
  SongGenre STRING(25)
) PRIMARY KEY(SingerId, AlbumId, TrackId),
  INTERLEAVE IN PARENT Albums ON DELETE CASCADE;

CREATE INDEX SongsBySingerAlbumSongNameDesc ON Songs(SingerId, AlbumId, SongName DESC), INTERLEAVE IN Albums;

CREATE INDEX SongsBySongName ON Songs(SongName);

CREATE TABLE Concerts (
  VenueId      INT64 NOT NULL,
  SingerId     INT64 NOT NULL,
  ConcertDate  DATE NOT NULL,
  BeginTime    TIMESTAMP,
  EndTime      TIMESTAMP,
  TicketPrices ARRAY<INT64>
) PRIMARY KEY(VenueId, SingerId, ConcertDate);

You can use the following Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements to add data to these tables:

INSERT INTO Singers (SingerId, FirstName, LastName, BirthDate)
VALUES (1, "Marc", "Richards", "1970-09-03"),
       (2, "Catalina", "Smith", "1990-08-17"),
       (3, "Alice", "Trentor", "1991-10-02"),
       (4, "Lea", "Martin", "1991-11-09"),
       (5, "David", "Lomond", "1977-01-29");

INSERT INTO Albums (SingerId, AlbumId, AlbumTitle)
VALUES (1, 1, "Total Junk"),
       (1, 2, "Go, Go, Go"),
       (2, 1, "Green"),
       (2, 2, "Forever Hold Your Peace"),
       (2, 3, "Terrified"),
       (3, 1, "Nothing To Do With Me"),
       (4, 1, "Play");

INSERT INTO Songs (SingerId, AlbumId, TrackId, SongName, Duration, SongGenre)
VALUES (2, 1, 1, "Let's Get Back Together", 182, "COUNTRY"),
       (2, 1, 2, "Starting Again", 156, "ROCK"),
       (2, 1, 3, "I Knew You Were Magic", 294, "BLUES"),
       (2, 1, 4, "42", 185, "CLASSICAL"),
       (2, 1, 5, "Blue", 238, "BLUES"),
       (2, 1, 6, "Nothing Is The Same", 303, "BLUES"),
       (2, 1, 7, "The Second Time", 255, "ROCK"),
       (2, 3, 1, "Fight Story", 194, "ROCK"),
       (3, 1, 1, "Not About The Guitar", 278, "BLUES");

Leaf operators

A leaf operator is an operator that has no children. The types of leaf operators are:

• Array unnest
• Generate relation
• Unit relation
• Empty relation
• Scan

Array unnest

An array unnest operator flattens an input array into rows of elements. Each resulting row contains up to two columns: the actual value from the array, and optionally the zero-based position in the array.

For example, using this query:

SELECT a, b FROM UNNEST([1,2,3]) a WITH OFFSET b;

The query flattens the array [1,2,3] in column a and shows the array position in column b.

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

Generate relation

A generate relation operator returns zero or more rows.

Unit relation

The unit relation returns one row. It is a special case of the generate relation operator.

For example, using this query:

SELECT 1 + 2 AS Result;

The result is:

This is the execution plan:

Empty relation

The empty relation returns no rows. It is a special case of the generate relation operator.

For example, using this query:

SELECT * FROM Albums LIMIT 0

The result is:

No results

This is the execution plan:

Scan

A scan operator returns rows by scanning a source of rows. These are the types of scan operators:

• Table scan: The scan occurs on a table.
• Index scan: The scan occurs on an index.
• Batch scan: The scan occurs on intermediate tables created by other relational operators (for example, a table created by a distributed cross apply).

Whenever possible, Spanner applies simple predicates on keys as part of a scan. Scans execute more efficiently when predicates are applied because the scan does not need to read the entire table or index. Predicates appear in the execution plan in the form KeyPredicate: column=value.

In the worst case, a query may need to look up at all the rows in a table. This situation leads to a full scan, and appear in the execution plan as full scan: true.

For example, using this query:

SELECT s.LastName
FROM singers@{FORCE_INDEX=SingersByFirstLastName} AS s
WHERE s.FirstName = 'Catalina';

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

In the execution plan, the top-level distributed union operator sends subplans to remote servers. Each subplan has a serialize result operator and an index scan operator. The predicate Key Predicate: FirstName = 'Catalina' restricts the scan to rows in the index SingersByFirstLastname that have FirstName equal to Catalina. The output of the index scan is returned to the serialize result operator.

Unary operators

A unary operator is an operator that has a single relational child.

The following operators are unary operators:

• Aggregate
• Apply mutations
• Create batch
• Compute
• Compute struct
• Filter
• Filter scan
• Limit
• Local split union
• Random Id Assign
• Serialize result
• Sort
• TVF
• Union input

Aggregate

An aggregate operator implements GROUP BY SQL statements and aggregate functions (such as COUNT). The input for an aggregate operator is logically partitioned into groups arranged on key columns (or into a single group if GROUP BY is not present). For each group, zero or more aggregates are computed.

For example, using this query:

SELECT s.SingerId, AVG(s.duration) AS average, COUNT(*) AS count
FROM Songs AS s
GROUP BY SingerId;

The query groups by SingerId and performs an AVG aggregation and a COUNT aggregation.

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

Aggregate operators can be stream-based or hash-based. The execution plan above shows a stream-based aggregate. Stream-based aggregates read from already pre-sorted input (if GROUP BY is present) and compute the groups without blocking. Hash-based aggregates build hash tables to maintain incremental aggregates of multiple input rows simultaneously. Stream-based aggregates are faster and use less memory than hash-based aggregates, but require the input to be sorted (either by key columns or secondary indexes).

For distributed scenarios, an aggregate operator can be separated into a local/global pair. Each remote server performs the local aggregation on its input rows, and then returns its results to the root server. The root server performs the global aggregation.

Apply mutations

An apply mutations operator applies the mutations from a Data Manipulation Statement (DML) to the table. It is the top operator in a query plan for a DML statement.

For example, using this query:

DELETE FROM Singers
WHERE FirstName = 'Alice';

These are the results:

4 rows deleted
This statement deleted 4 rows and did not return any rows.

This is the execution plan:

Create batch

A create batch operator batches its input rows into a sequence. A create batch operation usually occurs as a part of a distributed cross apply operation. The input rows can be re-ordered during the batching. The number of input rows that get batched in each execution of the batch operator is variable.

See the distributed cross apply operator for an example of a create batch operator in an execution plan.

Compute

A compute operator produces output by reading its input rows and adding one or more additional columns that are computed via scalar expressions. See the union all operator for an example of a compute operator in an execution plan.

Compute struct

A compute struct operator creates a variable for a structure that contains fields for each of the input columns.

For example, using this query:

SELECT FirstName,
       ARRAY(SELECT AS STRUCT song.SongName, song.SongGenre
             FROM Songs AS song
             WHERE song.SingerId = singer.SingerId)
FROM singers AS singer
WHERE singer.SingerId = 3;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

In the execution plan, the array subquery operator receives input from a distributed union operator, which receives input from a compute struct operator. The compute struct operator creates a structure from the SongName and SongGenre columns in the Songs table.

Filter

A filter operator reads all rows from its input, applies a scalar predicate on each row, and then returns only the rows that satisfy the predicate.

For example, using this query:

SELECT s.LastName FROM (SELECT s.LastName
FROM Singers AS s LIMIT 3) s
WHERE s.LastName LIKE 'Rich%';

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

The predicate for singers whose last name starts with Rich is implemented as a filter. The filter's input is the output from an index scan, and the filter's output are rows where LastName starts with Rich.

For performance, whenever a filter is directly positioned above a scan, the filter impacts how data is read. For example, consider a table with key k. A filter with predicate k = 5 directly on top of a scan of the table will look for rows that match k = 5, without reading the entire input. This results in more efficient execution of the query. In the example above, the filter operator reads only the rows that satisfy the WHERE s.LastName LIKE 'Rich%' predicate.

Filter scan

A filter scan operator is always on top of a table or index scan. It works with the scan to reduce the number of rows read from the database, and the resulting scan is typically faster than with a filter. Spanner applies the filter scan in certain conditions:

• Seekable condition: The seekable condition applies if Spanner can determine a specific row to access in the table. In general, this happens when the filter is on a prefix of the primary key. For example, if the primary key consists of Col1 and Col2, then a WHERE clause that includes explicit values for Col1, or Col1 and Col2 is seekable. In that case, Spanner reads data only within the key range.
• Residual condition: Any other condition where Spanner can evaluate the scan to limit the amount of data that is read.

For example, using this query:

SELECT LastName
FROM Singers
WHERE SingerId = 1

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

Limit

A limit operator constrains the number of rows returned. An optional OFFSET parameter specifies the starting row to return. For distributed scenarios, a limit operator can be separated into a local/global pair. Each remote server applies the local limit for its output rows, and then returns its results to the root server. The root server aggregates the rows sent by the remote servers and then applies the global limit.

For example, using this query:

SELECT s.SongName
FROM Songs AS s
LIMIT 3;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

The local limit is the limit for each remote server. The root server aggregates the rows from the remote servers and then applies the global limit.

Random Id Assign

A random id assign operator produces output by reading its input rows and adding a random number to each row. It works with a Filter or Sort operator to achieve sampling methods. Supported sampling methods are Bernoulli and Reservoir.

For example, the following query uses Bernoulli sampling with a sampling rate of 10 percent.

SELECT s.SongName
FROM Songs AS s TABLESAMPLE BERNOULLI (10 PERCENT);

These are the results:

Note that because the result is a sample, the result could vary each time the query is run even though the query is the same.

This is the execution plan:

In this execution plan, the Random Id Assign operator receives its input from a distributed union operator, which receives its input from an index scan. The operator returns the rows with random ids and the Filter operator then applies a scalar predicate on the random ids and returns approximately 10 percent of the rows.

The following example uses Reservoir sampling with a sampling rate of 2 rows.

SELECT s.SongName
FROM Songs AS s TABLESAMPLE RESERVOIR (2 ROWS);

These are the results:

Note that because the result is a sample, the result could vary each time the query is run even though the query is the same.

This is the execution plan:

In this execution plan, the Random Id Assign operator receives its input from a distributed union operator, which receives its input from an index scan. The operator returns the rows with random ids and the Sort operator then applies the sort order on the random ids and apply LIMIT with 2 rows.

Local split union

A local split union operator finds table splits stored on the local server, runs a subquery on each split, and then creates a union that combines all results.

A local split union appears in execution plans that scan a placement table. Placements can increase the number of splits in a table, making it more efficient to scan splits in batches based on their physical storage locations.

For example, suppose the Singers table uses a placement key to partition singer data:

CREATE TABLE Singers (
    SingerId INT64 NOT NULL,
    SingerName STRING(MAX) NOT NULL,
    ...
    Location STRING(MAX) NOT NULL PLACEMENT KEY
) PRIMARY KEY (SingerId);

Now, consider this query:

SELECT BirthDate FROM Singers;

This is the execution plan:

The distributed union sends a subquery to each batch of splits physically stored together in the same server. On each server, the local split union finds splits storing Singers data, executes the subquery on each split, and returns the combined results. In this way, the distributed union and local split union work together to efficiently scan the Singers table. Without a local split union, the distributed union would send one RPC per split instead of per split batch, resulting in redundant RPC round trips when there's more than one split per batch.

Serialize result

A serialize result operator is a special case of the compute struct operator that serializes each row of the final result of the query, for returning to the client.

For example, using this query:

SELECT ARRAY(SELECT AS STRUCT so.SongName, so.SongGenre
             FROM Songs AS so
             WHERE so.SingerId = s.SingerId)
FROM Singers AS s;

The query asks for an array of SongNameand SongGenre based on SingerId.

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

The serialize result operator creates a result that contains, for each row of the Singers table, an array of SongName and SongGenre pairs for the songs by the singer.

Sort

A sort operator reads its input rows, orders them by column(s), and then returns the sorted results.

For example, using this query:

SELECT s.SongGenre
FROM Songs AS s
ORDER By SongGenre;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

In this execution plan, the sort operator receives its input rows from a distributed union operator, sorts the input rows, and returns the sorted rows to a serialize result operator.

To constrain the number of rows returned, a sort operator can optionally have LIMIT and OFFSET parameters. For distributed scenarios, a sort operator with a LIMIT and/or OFFSET operator is separated into a local/global pair. Each remote server applies the sort order and the local limit/offset for its input rows, and then returns its results to the root server. The root server aggregates the rows sent by the remote servers, sorts them, and then applies the global limit/offset.

For example, using this query:

SELECT s.SongGenre
FROM Songs AS s
ORDER By SongGenre
LIMIT 3;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

The execution plan shows the local limit for the remote servers and the global limit for the root server.

TVF

A table valued function operator produces output by reading its input rows and applying the specified function. The function might implement mapping and return the same number of rows as input. It can also be a generator that returns more rows or a filter that returns less rows.

For example, using this query:

SELECT Genre, SongName
FROM ML.PREDICT(MODEL GenreClassifier, Table Songs)

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

Union input

A union input operator returns results to a union all operator. See the union all operator for an example of a union input operator in an execution plan.

Binary operators

A binary operator is an operator that has two relational children. The following operators are binary operators:

• Cross apply
• Hash join
• Merge join
• Push broadcast hash join
• Outer apply

Cross apply

A cross apply operator runs a table query on each row retrieved by a query of another table, and returns the union of all the table query runs. Cross apply and outer apply operators execute row-oriented processing, unlike operators that execute set-based processing such as hash join . The cross apply operator has two inputs, input and map. The cross apply operator applies each row in the input side to the map side. The result of the cross apply has columns from both the input and map sides.

For example, using this query:

SELECT si.FirstName,
  (SELECT so.SongName
   FROM Songs AS so
   WHERE so.SingerId=si.SingerId
   LIMIT 1)
FROM Singers AS si;

The query asks for the first name of each singer, along with the name of only one of the singer's songs.

These are the results:

The first column is populated from the Singers table, and the second column is populated from the Songs table. In cases where a SingerId existed in the Singers table but there was no matching SingerId in the Songs table, the second column contains NULL.

This is the execution plan:

The top-level node is a distributed union operator. The distributed union operator distributes subplans to remote servers. The subplan contains a serialize result operator that computes the singer's first name and the name of one of the singer's songs and serializes each row of the output.

The serialize result operator receives its input from a cross apply operator. The input side for the cross apply operator is a table scan on the Singers table.

The map side for the cross apply operation contains the following (from top to bottom):

• An aggregate operator that returns Songs.SongName.
• A limit operator that limits the number of songs returned to one per singer.
• An index scan on the SongsBySingerAlbumSongNameDesc index.

The cross apply operator maps each row from the input side to a row in the map side that has the same SingerId. The cross apply operator output is the FirstName value from the input row, and the SongName value from the map row. (The SongName value will be NULL if there is no map row that matches on SingerId.) The distributed union operator at the top of the execution plan then combines all of the output rows from the remote servers and returns them as the query results.

Hash join

A hash join operator is a hash-based implementation of SQL joins. Hash joins execute set-based processing. The hash join operator reads rows from input marked as build and inserts them into a hash table based on a join condition. The hash join operator then reads rows from input marked as probe. For each row it reads from the probe input, the hash join operator looks for matching rows in the hash table. The hash join operator returns the matching rows as its result.

For example, using this query:

SELECT a.AlbumTitle, s.SongName
FROM Albums AS a JOIN@{join_method=hash_join} Songs AS s
ON a.SingerId = s.SingerId AND a.AlbumId = s.AlbumId;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

In the execution plan, build is a distributed union that distributes scans on the table Albums. Probe is a distributed union operator that distributes scans on the index SongsBySingerAlbumSongNameDesc. The hash join operator reads all rows from the build side. Each build row is placed in a hash table based on the columns in the condition a.SingerId = s.SingerId AND a.AlbumId = s.AlbumId. Next, the hash join operator reads all rows from the probe side. For each probe row, the hash join operator looks for matches in the hash table. The resulting matches are returned by the hash join operator.

Resulting matches in the hash table may also be filtered by a residual condition before they are returned. (An example of where residual conditions appear is in non-equality joins). Hash join execution plans can be complex due to memory management and join variants. The main hash join algorithm is adapted to handle inner, semi, anti, and outer join variants.

Merge join

A merge join operator is a merge-based implementation of SQL join. Both sides of the join produce rows ordered by the columns used in the join condition. The merge join consumes both input streams concurrently and outputs rows when the join condition is satisfied. If the inputs are not originally sorted as required then the optimizer adds explicit Sort operators to the plan.

Merge join is not selected automatically by the optimizer. To use this operator, set the join method to MERGE_JOIN on the query hint, as shown in the following example:

SELECT a.AlbumTitle, s.SongName
FROM Albums AS a JOIN@{join_method=merge_join} Songs AS s
ON a.SingerId = s.SingerId AND a.AlbumId = s.AlbumId;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

In this execution plan, the merge join is distributed so that the join executes where the data is located. This also allows the merge join in this example to operate without the introduction of additional sort operators, because both table scans are already sorted by SingerId, AlbumId, which is the join condition. In this plan the left hand side scan of the Albums table advances whenever its SingerId, AlbumId is comparatively less than the right hand side SongsBySingerAlbumSongNameDesc index scan SingerId_1, AlbumId_1 pair. Similarly, the right hand side advances whenever it is less than the left hand side. This merge advance continues searching for equivalences such that resulting matches can be returned.

Consider another merge join example using the following query:

SELECT a.AlbumTitle, s.SongName
FROM Albums AS a JOIN@{join_method=merge_join} Songs AS s
ON a.AlbumId = s.AlbumId;

It yields the following results:

This is the execution plan:

In the preceding execution plan, additional Sort operators have been introduced by the query optimizer to achieve the necessary properties for the merge join to execute. The JOIN condition in this example's query is only on AlbumId, which is not how the data is stored, so a sort must be added. The query engine supports a Distributed Merge algorithm, allowing the sort to happen locally instead of globally, which distributes and parallelizes the CPU cost.

The resulting matches may also be filtered by a residual condition before they are returned. (An example of where residual conditions appear is in non-equality joins). Merge join execution plans can be complex due to additional sort requirements. The main merge join algorithm is adapted to handle inner, semi, anti, and outer join variants.

Push broadcast hash join

A push broadcast hash join operator is a distributed hash-join-based implementation of SQL joins. The push broadcast hash join operator reads rows from the input side in order to construct a batch of data. That batch is then broadcast to all servers containing map side data. On the destination servers where the batch of data is received, a hash join is built using the batch as the build side data and the local data is then scanned as the probe side of the hash join.

Push broadcast hash join is not selected automatically by the optimizer. To use this operator, set the join method to PUSH_BROADCAST_HASH_JOIN on the query hint, as shown in the following example:

SELECT a.AlbumTitle, s.SongName
FROM Albums AS a JOIN@{join_method=push_broadcast_hash_join} Songs AS s
ON a.SingerId = s.SingerId AND a.AlbumId = s.AlbumId;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

The input to the Push broadcast hash join is the AlbumsByAlbumTitle index. That input is serialized into a batch of data. That batch is then sent to all the local splits of the index SongsBySingerAlbumSongNameDesc, where the batch is then be deserialized and built into a hash table. The hash table then uses the local index data as a probe returning resulting matches.

Resulting matches may also be filtered by a residual condition before they are returned. (An example of where residual conditions appear is in non-equality joins).

Outer apply

An outer apply operator is similar to a cross apply operator, except an outer apply operator ensures that each execution on the map side returns at least one row by manufacturing a NULL-padded row if needed. (In other words, it provides left outer join semantics.)

N-ary operators

An N-ary operator is an operator that has more than two relational children. The following operators are N-ary operators:

Union all

A union all operator combines all row sets of its children without removing duplicates. Union all operators receive their input from union input operators that are distributed across multiple servers. The union all operator requires that its inputs have the same schema, that is, the same set of data types for each column.

For example, using this query:

SELECT 1 a, 2 b
UNION ALL
SELECT 3 a, 4 b
UNION ALL
SELECT 5 a, 6 b;

The row type for the children consists of two integers.

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

The union all operator combines its input rows, and in this example it sends the results to a serialize result operator.

A query such as the following would succeed, because the same set of data types is used for each column, even though the children use different variables for the column names:

SELECT 1 a, 2 b
UNION ALL
SELECT 3 c, 4 e;

A query such as the following would not succeed, because the children use different data types for the columns:

SELECT 1 a, 2 b
UNION ALL
SELECT 3 a, 'This is a string' b;

Scalar subqueries

A scalar subquery is a SQL sub-expression that is part of a scalar expression. Spanner attempts to remove scalar subqueries whenever possible. In certain scenarios, however, plans can explicitly contain scalar subqueries.

For example, using this query:

SELECT FirstName,
IF(FirstName='Alice',
   (SELECT COUNT(*)
    FROM Songs
    WHERE Duration > 300),
   0)
FROM Singers;

This is the SQL sub-expression:

SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Songs
WHERE Duration > 300;

These are the results (of the complete query):

This is the execution plan:

The execution plan contains a scalar subquery, shown as Scalar Subquery, above an aggregate operator.

Spanner sometimes converts scalar subqueries into another operator such as a join or cross apply, to possibly improve performance.

For example, using this query:

SELECT *
FROM Songs
WHERE Duration = (SELECT MAX(Duration) FROM Songs);

This is the SQL sub-expression:

SELECT MAX(Duration) FROM Songs;

These are the results (of the complete query):

This is the execution plan:

The execution plan does not contain a scalar subquery because Spanner converted the scalar subquery to a cross apply.

Array subqueries

An array subquery is similar to a scalar subquery, except that the subquery is allowed to consume more than one input row. The consumed rows are converted to a single scalar output array that contains one element per consumed input row.

For example, using this query:

SELECT a.AlbumId,
ARRAY(SELECT ConcertDate
      FROM Concerts
      WHERE Concerts.SingerId = a.SingerId)
FROM Albums AS a;

This is the subquery:

SELECT ConcertDate
FROM Concerts
WHERE Concerts.SingerId = a.SingerId;

The results of the subquery for each AlbumId are converted into an array of ConcertDate rows against that AlbumId. The execution plan contains an array subquery, shown as Array Subquery, above a distributed union operator:

Distributed operators

The operators described previously on this page execute within the boundaries of a single machine. Distributed operators execute across multiple servers.

The following operators are distributed operators:

• Distributed union
• Distributed merge union
• Distributed cross apply
• Distributed outer apply
• Apply mutations

The distributed union operator is the primitive operator from which distributed cross apply and distributed outer apply are derived.

Distributed operators appear in execution plans with a distributed union variant on top of one or more local distributed union variants. A distributed union variant performs the remote distribution of subplans. A local distributed union variant is on top of each of the scans performed for the query, as shown in this execution plan:

The local distributed union variants ensure stable query execution when restarts occur for dynamically changing split boundaries.

Whenever possible, a distributed union variant has a split predicate that results in split pruning, meaning the remote servers execute subplans on only the splits that satisfy the predicate. This improves both latency and overall query performance.

Distributed union

A distributed union operator conceptually divides one or more tables into multiple splits, remotely evaluates a subquery independently on each split, and then unions all results.

For example, using this query:

SELECT s.SongName, s.SongGenre
FROM Songs AS s
WHERE s.SingerId = 2 AND s.SongGenre = 'ROCK';

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

The distributed union operator sends subplans to remote servers, which perform a table scan across splits that satisfy the query's predicate WHERE s.SingerId = 2 AND s.SongGenre = 'ROCK'. A serialize result operator computes the SongName and SongGenre values from the rows returned by the table scans. The distributed union operator then returns the combined results from the remote servers as the SQL query results.

Distributed merge union

The distributed merge union operator distributes a query across multiple remote servers. It then combines the query results to produce a sorted result, known as a distributed merge sort.

A distributed merge union executes the following steps:

1. The root server sends a subquery to each remote server that hosts a split of the queried data. The subquery includes instructions that results are sorted in a specific order.

2. Each remote server executes the subquery on its split, then sends the results back in the requested order.

3. The root server merges the sorted subquery to produce a completely sorted result.

Distributed merge union is turned on, by default, for Spanner Version 3 and later.

Distributed cross apply

A distributed cross apply (DCA) operator extends the cross apply operator by executing across multiple servers. The DCA input side groups batches of rows (unlike a regular cross apply operator, which acts on only one input row at a time). The DCA map side is a set of cross apply operators that execute on remote servers.

For example, using this query:

SELECT AlbumTitle FROM Songs
JOIN Albums ON Albums.AlbumId=Songs.AlbumId;

The results are in the format:

This is the execution plan:

The DCA input contains an index scan on the SongsBySingerAlbumSongNameDesc index that batches rows of AlbumId. The map side for this cross apply operator is an index scan on the index AlbumsByAlbumTitle, subject to the predicate of AlbumId in the input row matching the AlbumId key in the AlbumsByAlbumTitle index. The mapping returns the SongName for the SingerId values in the batched input rows.

To summarize the DCA process for this example, the DCA's input is the batched rows from the Albums table, and the DCA's output is the application of these rows to the map of the index scan.

Distributed outer apply

A distributed outer apply operator extends the outer apply operator by executing over multiple servers, similar to the way a distributed cross apply operator extends a cross apply operator.

For example, using this query:

SELECT LastName, ConcertDate FROM Singers
LEFT OUTER JOIN@{JOIN_TYPE=APPLY_JOIN} Concerts
ON Singers.SingerId=Concerts.SingerId;

The results are in the format:

This is the execution plan:

Apply mutations

An apply mutations operator applies the mutations from a Data Manipulation Statement (DML) to the table. It is the top operator in a query plan for a DML statement.

For example, using this query:

DELETE FROM Singers
WHERE FirstName = 'Alice';

These are the results:

4 rows deleted
This statement deleted 4 rows and did not return any rows.

This is the execution plan:

Additional information

This section describes items that are not standalone operators, but instead execute tasks to support one or more of the operators listed above. The items described here are technically operators, but they are not separate operators in your query plan.

Struct constructor

A struct constructor creates a struct, or a collection of fields. It typically creates a struct for rows that result from a compute operation. A struct constructor is not a standalone operator. Instead, it appears in compute struct operators or serialize result operators.

For a compute struct operation, the struct constructor creates a struct so columns for the computed rows can use a single variable reference to the struct.

For a serialize result operation, the struct constructor creates a struct to serialize the results.

For example, using this query:

SELECT IF(TRUE, struct(1 AS A, 1 AS B), struct(2 AS A , 2 AS B)).A;

These are the results:

This is the execution plan:

In the execution plan, struct constructors appear inside a serialize result operator.